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IntroductiontoWordNet:AnOn-lineLexicalDatabase

GeorgeA.Miller,RichardBeckwith,ChristianeFellbaum,

DerekGross,andKatherineMiller

(RevisedAugust1993)

WordNetisanon-linelexicalreferencesystemwhosedesignisinspiredbycurrent

psycholinguistictheoriesofhumanlexicalmemory. Englishnouns,verbs,andadjectivesare

organizedintosynonymsets,eachrepresentingoneunderlyinglexicalconcept. Different

relationslinkthesynonymsets.

Standardalphabeticalproceduresfororganizinglexicalinformationputtogether

wordsthatarespelledalikeandscatterwordswithsimilarorrelatedmeanings

haphazardlythroughthelist. Unfortunately,thereisnoobviousalternative,noother

simplewayforlexicographerstokeeptrackofwhathasbeendoneorforreaderstoﬁnd

thewordtheyarelookingfor. Butafrequentobjectiontothissolutionisthatﬁnding

thingsonanalphabeticallistcanbetediousandtime-consuming. Manypeoplewho

wouldliketorefertoadictionarydecidenottobotherwithitbecauseﬁndingthe

informationwouldinterrupttheirworkandbreaktheirtrainofthought.

Inthisageofcomputers,however,thereisananswertothatcomplaint. One

obviousreasontoresorttoon-linedictionaries—lexicaldatabasesthatcanbereadby

computers—isthatcomputerscansearchsuchalphabeticallistsmuchfasterthanpeople

can. Adictionaryentrycanbeavailableassoonasthetargetwordisselectedortyped

intothekeyboard. Moreover,sincedictionariesareprintedfromtapesthatarereadby

computers,itisarelativelysimplemattertoconvertthosetapesintotheappropriatekind

oflexicaldatabase. Puttingconventionaldictionariesonlineseemsasimpleandnatural

marriageoftheoldandthenew.

Oncecomputersareenlistedintheserviceofdictionaryusers,however,itquickly

becomesapparentthatitisgrosslyinefﬁcienttousethesepowerfulmachinesaslittle

morethanrapidpage-turners. Thechallengeistothinkwhatfurtherusetomakeof

them. WordNetisaproposalforamoreeffectivecombinationoftraditional

lexicographicinformationandmodernhigh-speedcomputation.

This,andtheaccompanyingfourpapers,isadetailedreportofthestateofWordNet

asof1990. Inordertoreduceunnecessaryrepetition,thepapersarewrittentoberead

consecutively.

Psycholexicology

Murray’sOxfordEnglishDictionary(1928)wascompiled‘‘onhistorical

principles’’andnoonedoubtsthevalueoftheOEDinsettlingissuesofworduseor

sensepriority. Byfocusingonhistorical(diachronic)evidence,however,theOED,like

otherstandarddictionaries,neglectedquestionsconcerningthesynchronicorganization

oflexicalknowledge.

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Itisnowpossibletoenvisionwaysinwhichthatomissionmightberepaired. The

20thCenturyhasseentheemergenceofpsycholinguistics,aninterdisciplinaryﬁeldof

researchconcernedwiththecognitivebasesoflinguisticcompetence. Bothlinguistsand

psycholinguistshaveexploredinconsiderabledepththefactorsdeterminingthe

contemporary(synchronic)structureoflinguisticknowledgeingeneral,andlexical

knowledgeinparticular—MillerandJohnson-Laird(1976)haveproposedthatresearch

concernedwiththelexicalcomponentoflanguageshouldbecalledpsycholexicology.

Aslinguistictheoriesevolvedinrecentdecades,linguistsbecameincreasinglyexplicit

abouttheinformationalexiconmustcontaininorderforthephonological,syntactic,and

lexicalcomponentstoworktogetherintheeverydayproductionandcomprehensionof

linguisticmessages,andthoseproposalshavebeenincorporatedintotheworkof

psycholinguists. Beginningwithwordassociationstudiesattheturnofthecenturyand

continuingdowntothesophisticatedexperimentaltasksofthepasttwentyyears,

psycholinguistshavediscoveredmanysynchronicpropertiesofthementallexiconthat

canbeexploitedinlexicography.

In1985agroupofpsychologistsandlinguistsatPrincetonUniversityundertookto

developalexicaldatabasealonglinessuggestedbytheseinvestigations(Miller,1985).

Theinitialideawastoprovideanaidtouseinsearchingdictionariesconceptually,rather

thanmerelyalphabetically—itwastobeusedincloseconjunctionwithanon-line

dictionaryoftheconventionaltype. Astheworkproceeded,however,itdemandeda

moreambitiousformulationofitsownprinciplesandgoals. WordNetistheresult.

Inasmuchasitinstantiateshypothesesbasedonresultsofpsycholinguisticresearch,

WordNetcanbesaidtobeadictionarybasedonpsycholinguisticprinciples.

Howtheleadingpsycholinguistictheoriesshouldbeexploitedforthisprojectwas

notalwaysobvious. Unfortunately,mostresearchofinterestforpsycholexicologyhas

dealtwithrelativelysmallsamplesoftheEnglishlexicon,oftenconcentratingonnouns

attheexpenseofotherpartsofspeech. Alltoooften,aninterestinghypothesisisput

forward,ﬁftyorahundredwordsillustratingitareconsidered,andextensiontotherest

ofthelexiconisleftasanexerciseforthereader. OnemotivefordevelopingWordNet

wastoexposesuchhypothesestothefullrangeofthecommonvocabulary. WordNet

presentlycontainsapproximately95,600differentwordforms(51,500simplewordsand

44,100collocations)organizedintosome70,100wordmeanings,orsetsofsynonyms,

andonlythemostrobusthypotheseshavesurvived.

ThemostobviousdifferencebetweenWordNetandastandarddictionaryisthat

WordNetdividesthelexiconintoﬁvecategories:nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,and

functionwords. Actually,WordNetcontainsonlynouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.1

TherelativelysmallsetofEnglishfunctionwordsisomittedontheassumption

(supportedbyobservationsofthespeechofaphasicpatients:Garrett,1982)thattheyare

probablystoredseparatelyaspartofthesyntacticcomponentoflanguage. The

realizationthatsyntacticcategoriesdifferinsubjectiveorganizationemergedﬁrstfrom

studiesofwordassociations. FillenbaumandJones(1965),forexample,askedEnglish-

Adiscussionofadverbsisnotincludedinthepresentcollectionofpapers.

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speakingsubjectstogivetheﬁrstwordtheythoughtofinresponsetohighlyfamiliar

wordsdrawnfromdifferentsyntacticcategories. Themodalresponsecategorywasthe

sameasthecategoryoftheprobeword:nounprobeselicitednounsresponses79%ofthe

time,adjectiveselicitedadjectives65%ofthetime,andverbselicitedverbs43%ofthe

time. Sincegrammaticalspeechrequiresaspeakertoknow(atleastimplicitly)the

syntacticprivilegesofdifferentwords,itisnotsurprisingthatsuchinformationwouldbe

readilyavailable. Howitislearned,however,ismoreofapuzzle:itisrareinconnected

discourseforadjacentwordstobefromthesamesyntacticcategory,soFillenbaumand

Jones’sdatacannotbeexplainedasassociationbycontinguity.

ThepriceofimposingthissyntacticcategorizationonWordNetisacertainamount

ofredundancythatconventionaldictionariesavoid—wordslikeback,forexample,turn

upinmorethanonecategory. Buttheadvantageisthatfundamentaldifferencesinthe

semanticorganizationofthesesyntacticcategoriescanbeclearlyseenandsystematically

exploited. Aswillbecomeclearfromthepapersfollowingthisone,nounsareorganized

inlexicalmemoryastopicalhierarchies,verbsareorganizedbyavarietyofentailment

relations,andadjectivesandadverbsareorganizedasN-dimensionalhyperspaces. Each

oftheselexicalstructuresreﬂectsadifferentwayofcategorizingexperience;attemptsto

imposeasingleorganizingprincipleonallsyntacticcategorieswouldbadlymisrepresent

thepsychologicalcomplexityoflexicalknowledge.

ThemostambitiousfeatureofWordNet,however,isitsattempttoorganizelexical

informationintermsofwordmeanings,ratherthanwordforms. Inthatrespect,

WordNetresemblesathesaurusmorethanadictionary,and,infact,LaurenceUrdang’s

revisionofRodale’sTheSynonymFinder(1978)andRobertL.Chapman’srevisionof

Roget’sInternationalThesaurus(1977)havebeenhelpfultoolsinputtingWordNet

together.Butneitherofthoseexcellentworksiswellsuitedtotheprintedform. The

problemwithanalphabeticalthesaurusisredundantentries:ifwordW

andwordW

are

synonyms,thepairshouldbeenteredtwice,oncealphabetizedunderW

andagain

alphabetizedunderW

. Theproblemwithatopicalthesaurusisthattwolook-upsare

required,ﬁrstonanalphabeticallistandagaininthethesaurusproper,thusdoublinga

user’ssearchtime. Theseare,ofcourse,preciselythekindsofmechanicalchoresthata

computercanperformrapidlyandefﬁciently.

WordNetisnotmerelyanon-linethesaurus,however. Inordertoappreciatewhat

morehasbeenattemptedinWordNet,itisnecessarytounderstanditsbasicdesign

(MillerandFellbaum,1991).

TheLexicalMatrix

Lexicalsemanticsbeginswitharecognitionthatawordisaconventional

associationbetweenalexicalizedconceptandanutterancethatplaysasyntacticrole.

Thisdeﬁnitionof‘‘word’’raisesatleastthreeclassesofproblemsforresearch. First,

whatkindsofutterancesenterintotheselexicalassociations? Second,whatisthenature

andorganizationofthelexicalizedconceptsthatwordscanexpress? Third,what

syntacticrolesdodifferentwordsplay? Althoughitisimpossibletoignoreanyofthese

questionswhileconsideringonlyone,theemphasisherewillbeonthesecondclassof

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problems,thosedealingwiththesemanticstructureoftheEnglishlexicon.

Sincetheword‘‘word’’iscommonlyusedtoreferbothtotheutteranceandtoits

associatedconcept,discussionsofthislexicalassociationarevulnerableto

terminologicalconfusion. Inordertoreduceambiguity,therefore,‘‘wordform’’willbe

usedheretorefertothephysicalutteranceorinscriptionand‘‘wordmeaning’’toreferto

thelexicalizedconceptthataformcanbeusedtoexpress. Thenthestartingpointfor

lexicalsemanticscanbesaidtobethemappingbetweenformsandmeanings(Miller,

1986). Aconservativeinitialassumptionisthatdifferentsyntacticcategoriesofwords

mayhavedifferentkindsofmappings.

Table1isofferedsimplytomakethenotionofalexicalmatrixconcrete. Word

formsareimaginedtobelistedasheadingsforthecolumns;wordmeaningsasheadings

fortherows. Anentryinacellofthematriximpliesthattheforminthatcolumncanbe

used(inanappropriatecontext)toexpressthemeaninginthatrow. Thus,entryE

1,1

impliesthatwordformF

canbeusedtoexpresswordmeaningM

. Iftherearetwo

entriesinthesamecolumn,thewordformispolysemous;iftherearetwoentriesinthe

samerow,thetwowordformsaresynonyms(relativetoacontext).

Table1

IllustratingtheConceptofaLexicalMatrix:

andF

aresynonyms;F

ispolysemous

Word

WordForms

Meanings

. . . . F

1,1

1,2

2,2

3,3

m,n

Mappingsbetweenformsandmeaningsaremany:many—someformshaveseveral

differentmeanings,andsomemeaningscanbeexpressedbyseveraldifferentforms.

Twodifﬁcultproblemsoflexicography,polysemyandsynonymy,canbeviewedas

complementaryaspectsofthismapping. Thatistosay,polysemyandsynonymyare

problemsthatariseinthecourseofgainingaccesstoinformationinthementallexicon:a

listenerorreaderwhorecognizesaformmustcopewithitspolysemy;aspeakerorwriter

whohopestoexpressameaningmustdecidebetweensynonyms.

Asaparentheticalcomment,itshouldbenotedthatpsycholinguistsfrequently

representtheirhypothesesaboutlanguageprocessingbybox-and-arrowdiagrams. In

thatnotation,alexicalmatrixcouldberepresentedbytwoboxeswitharrowsgoing

betweentheminbothdirections. Oneboxwouldbelabeled‘WordMeaning’andthe

other‘WordForm’;arrowswouldindicatethatalanguageusercouldstartwitha

meaningandlookforappropriateformstoexpressit,orcouldstartwithaformand

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retrieveappropriatemeanings. Thisbox-and-arrowrepresentationmakesclearthe

differencebetweenmeaning:meaningrelations(intheWordMeaningbox)and

word:wordrelations(intheWordFormbox). Initsinitialconception,WordNetwas

concernedsolelywiththepatternofsemanticrelationsbetweenlexicalizedconcepts;that

istosay,itwastobeatheoryoftheWordMeaningbox. Asworkproceeded,however,

itbecameincreasinglyclearthatlexicalrelationsintheWordFormboxcouldnotbe

ignored. Atpresent,WordNetdistinguishesbetweensemanticrelationsandlexical

relations;theemphasisisstillonsemanticrelationsbetweenmeanings,butrelations

betweenwordsarealsoincluded.

Althoughthebox-and-arrowrepresentationrespectsthedifferencebetweenthese

twokindsofrelations,ithasthedisadvantagethattheintricatedetailsofthemany:many

mappingbetweenmeaningsandformsareslighted,whichnotonlyconcealsthe

reciprocityofpolysemyandsynonymy,butalsoobscuresthemajordeviceusedin

WordNettorepresentmeanings. Forthatreason,thisdescriptionofWordNethasbeen

introducedintermsofalexicalmatrix,ratherthanasabox-and-arrowdiagram.

HowarewordmeaningsrepresentedinWordNet? Inordertosimulatealexical

matrixitisnecessarytohavesomewaytorepresentbothformsandmeaningsina

computer. Inscriptionscanprovideareasonablysatisfactorysolutionfortheforms,but

howmeaningsshouldberepresentedposesacriticalquestionforanytheoryoflexical

semantics. Lackinganadequatepsychologicaltheory,methodsdevelopedby

lexicographerscanprovideaninterimsolution:deﬁnitionscanplaythesameroleina

simulationthatmeaningsplayinthemindofalanguageuser.

Howlexicalizedconceptsaretoberepresentedbydeﬁnitionsinatheoryoflexical

semanticsdependsonwhetherthetheoryisintendedtobeconstructiveormerely

differential. Inaconstructivetheory,therepresentationshouldcontainsufﬁcient

informationtosupportanaccurateconstructionoftheconcept(byeitherapersonora

machine). Therequirementsofaconstructivetheoryarenoteasilymet,andthereis

somereasontobelievethatthedeﬁnitionsfoundinmoststandarddictionariesdonot

meetthem(Gross,Kegl,Gildea,andMiller,1989;MillerandGildea,1987). Ina

differentialtheory,ontheotherhand,meaningscanberepresentedbyanysymbolsthat

enableatheoristtodistinguishamongthem. Therequirementsforadifferentialtheory

aremoremodest,yetsufﬁcefortheconstructionofthedesiredmappings. Iftheperson

whoreadsthedeﬁnitionhasalreadyacquiredtheconceptandneedsmerelytoidentifyit,

thenasynonym(ornearsynonym)isoftensufﬁcient. Inotherwords,thewordmeaning

inTable1canberepresentedbysimplylistingthewordformsthatcanbeusedto

expressit:{F

,...}. (Hereandlater,thecurlybrackets,‘{’and‘},’surroundthe

setsofsynonymsthatserveasidentifyingdeﬁnitionsoflexicalizedconcepts.) For

example,someonewhoknowsthatboardcansignifyeitherapieceoflumberoragroup

ofpeopleassembledforsomepurposewillbeabletopickouttheintendedsensewithno

morehelpthanplankorcommittee. Thesynonymsets,{board,plank}and{board,

committee}canserveasunambiguousdesignatorsofthesetwomeaningsofboard.

Thesesynonymsets(synsets)donotexplainwhattheconceptsare;theymerelysignify

thattheconceptsexist. PeoplewhoknowEnglishareassumedtohavealreadyacquired

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theconcepts,andareexpectedtorecognizethemfromthewordslistedinthesynset.

Alexicalmatrix,therefore,canberepresentedfortheoreticalpurposesbya

mappingbetweenwrittenwordsandsynsets. SinceEnglishisrichinsynonyms,synsets

areoftensufﬁcientfordifferentialpurposes. Sometimes,however,anappropriate

synonymisnotavailable,inwhichcasethepolysemycanberesolvedbyashortgloss,

e.g.,{board,(aperson’smeals,providedregularlyformoney)}canservetodifferentiate

thissenseofboardfromtheothers;itcanberegardedasasynsetwithasinglemember.

Theglossisnotintendedforuseinconstructinganewlexicalconceptbysomeonenot

alreadyfamiliarwithit,anditdiffersfromasynonyminthatitisnotusedtogainaccess

toinformationstoredinthementallexicon. Itfulﬁllsitspurposeifitenablestheuserof

WordNet,whoisassumedtoknowEnglish,todifferentiatethissensefromotherswith

whichitcouldbeconfused.

Synonymyis,ofcourse,alexicalrelationbetweenwordforms,butbecauseitis

assignedthiscentralroleinWordNet,anotationaldistinctionismadebetweenwords

relatedbysynonymy,whichareenclosedincurlybrackets,‘{’and‘}’,andotherlexical

relations,whichwillbeenclosedinsquarebrackets,‘[’and‘]’. Semanticrelationsare

indicatedbypointers.

WordNetisorganizedbysemanticrelations. Sinceasemanticrelationisarelation

betweenmeanings,andsincemeaningscanberepresentedbysynsets,itisnaturalto

thinkofsemanticrelationsaspointersbetweensynsets. Itischaracteristicofsemantic

relationsthattheyarereciprocated:ifthereisasemanticrelationRbetweenmeaning{x,

x¢,...}andmeaning{y,y¢,...},thenthereisalsoarelationR¢between{y,y¢,...}and

{x,x¢,...}. Forthepurposesofthepresentdiscussion,thenamesofthesemantic

relationswillserveadualrole:iftherelationbetweenthemeanings{x,x¢,...}and{y,

y¢,...}iscalledR,thenRwillalsobeusedtodesignatetherelationbetweenindividual

wordformsbelongingtothosesynsets. Itmightbelogicallytidiertointroduceseparate

termsfortherelationbetweenmeaningsandfortherelationbetweenforms,buteven

greaterconfusionmightresultfromtheintroductionofsomanynewtechnicalterms.

Thefollowingexamplesillustrate(butdonotexhaust)thekindsofrelationsusedto

createWordNet.

Synonymy

Fromwhathasalreadybeensaid,itshouldbeobviousthatthemostimportant

relationforWordNetissimilarityofmeaning,sincetheabilitytojudgethatrelation

betweenwordformsisaprerequisitefortherepresentationofmeaningsinalexical

matrix. Accordingtoonedeﬁnition(usuallyattributedtoLeibniz)twoexpressionsare

synonymousifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherneverchangesthetruthvalueofa

sentenceinwhichthesubstitutionismade. Bythatdeﬁnition,truesynonymsarerare,if

theyexistatall. Aweakenedversionofthisdeﬁnitionwouldmakesynonymyrelativeto

acontext:twoexpressionsaresynonymousinalinguisticcontextCifthesubstitutionof

onefortheotherinCdoesnotalterthetruthvalue. Forexample,thesubstitutionof

plankforboardwillseldomaltertruthvaluesincarpentrycontexts,althoughthereare

othercontextsofboardwherethatsubstitutionwouldbetotallyinappropriate.

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Notethatthedeﬁnitionofsynonymyintermsofsubstitutabilitymakesitnecessary

topartitionWordNetintonouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs. Thatistosay,if

conceptsarerepresentedbysynsets,andifsynonymsmustbeinterchangeable,then

wordsindifferentsyntacticcategoriescannotbesynonyms(cannotformsynsets)

becausetheyarenotinterchangeable. Nounsexpressnominalconcepts,verbsexpress

verbalconcepts,andmodiﬁersprovidewaystoqualifythoseconcepts. Inotherwords,

theuseofsynsetstorepresentwordmeaningsisconsistentwithpsycholinguistic

evidencethatnouns,verbs,andmodiﬁersareorganizedindependentlyinsemantic

memory. Anargumentmightbemadeinfavorofstillfurtherpartitions:somewordsin

thesamesyntacticcategory(particularlyverbs)expressverysimilarconcepts,yetcannot

beinterchangedwithoutmakingthesentenceungrammatical.

Thedeﬁnitionofsynonymyintermsoftruthvaluesseemstomakesynonymya

discretematter:twowordseitheraresynonymsortheyarenot. Butassome

philosophershaveargued,andmostpsychologistsacceptwithoutconsideringthe

alternative,synonymyisbestthoughtofasoneendofacontinuumalongwhich

similarityofmeaningcanbegraded. Itisprobablythecasethatsemanticallysimilar

wordscanbeinterchangedinmorecontextsthancansemanticallydissimilarwords. But

theimportantpointhereisthattheoriesoflexicalsemanticsdonotdependontruth-

functionalconceptionsofmeaning;semanticsimilarityissufﬁcient. Itisconvenientto

assumethattherelationissymmetric:ifxissimilartoy,thenyisequallysimilartox.

Thegradabilityofsemanticsimilarityisubiquitous,butitismostimportantfor

understandingtheorganizationofadjectivalandadverbialmeanings.

Antonymy

Anotherfamiliarrelationisantonymy,whichturnsouttobesurprisinglydifﬁcultto

deﬁne. Theantonymofawordxissometimesnot-x,butnotalways. Forexample,rich

andpoorareantonyms,buttosaythatsomeoneisnotrichdoesnotimplythattheymust

bepoor;manypeopleconsiderthemselvesneitherrichnorpoor. Antonymy,which

seemstobeasimplesymmetricrelation,isactuallyquitecomplex,yetspeakersof

Englishhavelittledifﬁcultyrecognizingantonymswhentheyseethem.

Antonymyisalexicalrelationbetweenwordforms,notasemanticrelationbetween

wordmeanings. Forexample,themeanings{rise,ascend}and{fall,descend}maybe

conceptualopposites,buttheyarenotantonyms;[rise/fall]areantonymsandsoare

[ascend/descend],butmostpeoplehesitateandlookthoughtfulwhenaskedifriseand

descend,orascendandfall,areantonyms.Suchfactsmakeapparenttheneedto

distinguishbetweensemanticrelationsbetweenwordformsandsemanticrelations

betweenwordmeanings. Antonymyprovidesacentralorganizingprincipleforthe

adjectivesandadverbsinWordNet,andthecomplicationsthatarisefromthefactthat

antonymyisasemanticrelationbetweenwordsarebetterdiscussedinthatcontext.

-8-

Hyponymy

Unlikesynonymyandantonymy,whicharelexicalrelationsbetweenwordforms,

hyponymy/hypernymyisasemanticrelationbetweenwordmeanings:e.g.,{maple}isa

hyponymof{tree},and{tree}isahyponymof{plant}. Muchattentionhasbeen

devotedtohyponymy/hypernymy(variouslycalledsubordination/superordination,

subset/superset,orthe

ISA

relation). Aconceptrepresentedbythesynset{x,x¢,...}is

saidtobeahyponymoftheconceptrepresentedbythesynset{y,y¢,...}ifnative

speakersofEnglishacceptsentencesconstructedfromsuchframesasAnxisa(kindof)

y. Therelationcanberepresentedbyincludingin{x,x¢,...}apointertoits

superordinate,andincludingin{y,y¢,...}pointerstoitshyponyms.

Hyponymyistransitiveandasymmetrical(Lyons,1977,vol.1),and,sincethereis

normallyasinglesuperordinate,itgeneratesahierarchicalsemanticstructure,inwhicha

hyponymissaidtobebelowitssuperordinate. Suchhierarchicalrepresentationsare

widelyusedintheconstructionofinformationretrievalsystems,wheretheyarecalled

inheritancesystems(Touretzky,1986):ahyponyminheritsallthefeaturesofthemore

genericconceptandaddsatleastonefeaturethatdistinguishesitfromitssuperordinate

andfromanyotherhyponymsofthatsuperordinate. Forexample,mapleinheritsthe

featuresofitssuperordinate,tree,butisdistinguishedfromothertreesbythehardnessof

itswood,theshapeofitsleaves,theuseofitssapforsyrup,etc. Thisconvention

providesthecentralorganizingprincipleforthenounsinWordNet.

Meronymy

Synonymy,antonymy,andhyponymyarefamiliarrelations. Theyapplywidely

throughoutthelexiconandpeopledonotneedspecialtraininginlinguisticsinorderto

appreciatethem. Anotherrelationsharingtheseadvantages—asemanticrelation—isthe

part-whole(or

HASA

)relation,knowntolexicalsemanticistsasmeronymy/holonymy. A

conceptrepresentedbythesynset{x,x¢,...}isameronymofaconceptrepresentedby

thesynset{y,y¢,...}ifnativespeakersofEnglishacceptsentencesconstructedfrom

suchframesasAyhasanx(asapart)orAnxisapartofy. Themeronymicrelationis

transitive(withqualiﬁcations)andasymmetrical(Cruse,1986),andcanbeusedto

constructaparthierarchy(withsomereservations,sinceameronymcanhavemany

holonyms). Itwillbeassumedthattheconceptofapartofawholecanbeapartofa

conceptofthewhole,althoughitisrecognizedthattheimplicationsofthisassumption

deservemorediscussionthantheywillreceivehere.

Theseandothersimilarrelationsservetoorganizethementallexicon. Theycanbe

representedinWordNetbyparentheticalgroupingsorbypointers(labeledarcs)fromone

synsettoanother. Theserelationsrepresentassociationsthatformacomplexnetwork;

knowingwhereawordissituatedinthatnetworkisanimportantpartofknowingthe

word’smeaning. Itisnotproﬁtabletodiscusstheserelationsintheabstract,however,

becausetheyplaydifferentrolesinorganizingthelexicalknowledgeassociatedwith

differentsyntacticcategories.

-9-

MorphologicalRelations

Animportantclassoflexicalrelationsarethemorphologicalrelationsbetween

wordforms. Initially,interestwaslimitedtosemanticrelations;noplansweremadeto

includemorphologicalrelationsinWordNet. Asworkprogressed,however,itbecame

increasinglyobviousthatifWordNetwastobeofanypracticalusetoanyone,itwould

havetodealwithinﬂectionalmorphology. Forexample,ifsomeoneputthecomputer’s

cursoronthewordtreesandclickedarequestforinformation,WordNetshouldnotreply

thatthewordwasnotinthedatabase. Aprogramwasneededtostripoffthepluralsufﬁx

andthentolookuptree,whichcertainlyisinthedatabase. Thisneedledtothe

developmentofaprogramfordealingwithinﬂectionalmorphology.

AlthoughtheinﬂectionalmorphologyofEnglishisrelativelysimple,writinga

computerprogramtodealwithitprovedtobeamorecomplextaskthanhadbeen

expected. Verbsarethemajorproblem,ofcourse,sincetherearefourformsandmany

irregularverbs. Butthesoftwarehasbeenwrittenandispresentlyavailableaspartofthe

interfacebetweenthelexicaldatabaseandtheuser. Inthecourseofthisdevelopmentit

becameobviousthatprogramsdealingwithderivationalmorphologywouldgreatly

enhancethevalueofWordNet,butthatmoreambitiousprojecthasnotyetbeen

undertaken.

Thethreepapersfollowingthisintroductionhavelittletosayaboutlexicalrelations

resultingfrominﬂectionalmorphology,sincethoserelations areincorporatedinthe

interfacetoWordNet,notinthecentraldatabase.

-10-

NounsinWordNet:ALexicalInheritanceSystem

GeorgeA.Miller

(RevisedAugust1993)

Deﬁnitionsofcommonnounstypicallygiveasuperordinatetermplus

distinguishingfeatures;thatinformationprovidesthebasisfororganizingnoun

ﬁlesinWordNet. Thesuperordinaterelation(hyponymy)generatesa

hierarchicalsemanticorganizationthatisduplicatedinthenounﬁlesbythe

useoflabeledpointersbetweensetsofsynonyms(synsets). Thehierarchyis

limitedindepth,seldomexceedingmorethanadozenlevels. Distinguishing

featuresareenteredinsuchawayastocreatealexicalinheritancesystem,a

systeminwhicheachwordinheritsthedistinguishingfeaturesofallits

superordinates. Threetypesofdistinguishingfeaturesarediscussed:attributes

(modiﬁcation),parts(meronymy),andfunctions(predication),butonly

meronymyispresentlyimplementedinthenounﬁles. Antonymyisalsofound

betweennouns,butitisnotafundamentalorganizingprinciplefornouns.

Coverageispartitionedintotwenty-ﬁvetopicalﬁles,eachofwhichdealswith

adifferentprimitivesemanticcomponent.

Asthisiswritten,WordNetcontainsapproximately57,000nounwordforms

organizedintoapproximately48,800wordmeanings(synsets). Thenumbersare

approximatebecauseWordNetcontinuestogrow—oneadvantageofanon-linedatabase.

Manyofthesenounsarecompounds,ofcourse;afewareartiﬁcialcollocationsinvented

fortheconvenienceofcategorization. Noattempthasbeenmadetoincludeproper

nouns;ontheotherhand,sincemanycommonnounsoncewerenames,noserious

attempthasbeenmadetoexcludethem. Intermsofcoverage,WordNet’sgoalsdiffer

littlefromthoseofagoodstandardhandheldcollegiate-leveldictionary. Itisinthe

organizationofthatinformationthatWordNetaspirestoinnovation.

Ifsomeoneaskshowtouseaconventionaldictionary,itiscustomarytoexplainthe

differentkindsofinformationpackedintolexicalentries:spelling,pronunciation,

inﬂectedandderivativeforms,etymology,partofspeech,deﬁnitionsandillustrativeuses

ofalternativesenses,synonymsandantonyms,specialusagenotes,occasionalline

drawingsorplates—agooddictionaryisaremarkablestoreofinformation. Butif

someoneaskshowtoimproveadictionary,itbecomesnecessarytoconsiderwhatisnot

included. Andwhen,asinthecaseofWordNet,improvementsareintendedtoreﬂect

psycholinguisticprinciples,thefocalconcernbecomeswhatisnotincludedinthe

deﬁnitions.

Examplesofferthesimplestwaytocharacterizetheomissions. Takeonemeaning

ofthenountree,thesensehavingtodowithtreesasplants. Conventionaldictionaries

deﬁnethissenseoftreebysomesuchglossas:aplantthatislarge,woody,perennial,

andhasadistincttrunk.Ofcourse,theactualwordingisusuallymorefelicitous—a

large,woody,perennialplantwithadistincttrunk,forexample—buttheunderlying

logicisthesame:superordinateplusdistinguishers. Thepointisthattheprototypical

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