40
79
both buoys. They use the same symbol, an inverted triangle with a semicircle on top,
labeled “Black Buoy” and “White Buoy”.
NY40 1845 is represented by two clips of Gedney’s Channel and part of the North
and South Channels. One of clips is from a reproduction of Electrotype Copy Number 1
(ECN1) (re-published by NOAA as BiC-10 in 1976), and the other is a scan of
Electrotype Copy Number 7 (ECN7), made available by the New York Public Library.
Both show buoys in the channel area, but ECN7 has many more buoys. Unfortunately,
the scans of both are too light to accurately discern the designs of the buoy symbols.
ECN1 looks to have the same buoys as NY40 1844, since the same labels are in the same
place. On ECN7 it appears that the buoy symbols are different, and each is labeled in a
font that appears to be a sans-serif Roman face, with “
BUOY [single letter].NO.[#]
”, for
example “
BUOY R.NO.4
”. A sentence added at bottom of the Notes area of ECN7 explains
this: “In the description of buoys H.S. signifies horizontal stripes,P.S. perpendicular
stripes, B. black, and R. red.”
Time period two shows the beginning of standardization for aid symbols.
NY40 1853 shows two aids—a bell boat, and a buoy. The boat is shown with a
pictograph of a 3-masted boat with 5 short lines emanating up in a semi-circle from the
center mast. It is labeled in an italic font. The buoy, which is not discernable, is labeled in
the same font and format as those on NY40 1844 ECN7: “
BUOY B.NO.5
”
MH400 1862/72 has two labels for aids that are barely legible: “
BEACON
”, and
“
LIGHT
” in a sans-serif Roman face. The aids they refer to are not visible in the clip.
GJF200 1862 has a lighthouse symbol on the island labeled “Smith or Blunt’s I.”
The symbol is similar to the lighthouse on NY40 1844, but is shorter, with a door and one
window instead of three windows. It is labeled as “Lt.Ho.” in a serifed, Roman font.
W1200 1855/64 also shows a single lighthouse on an island. Again the scan is
poor, but there appears to be a black dot that is associated with the same label as on
GFJ200 1862: “Lt.Ho.”
On E1200 1863 there is a single dot where there should be a lighthouse at Cape
Hatteras, but no light is labeled.
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80
The latest charts in time period two, NY40 1870 and SF40 1859/77, both have
buoy symbols that are different from earlier charts. No longer labeled “Buoy” (but still
numbered), there is a standard shape, similar to an upside down bowling pin, with a dot at
the base at the buoy’s actual location and the body of the symbol generally projecting
north from it. The body is either an outline, fully filled-in with black, or has a single
vertical or horizontal stripe, depending on the buoy’s color and meaning. The scheme is
explained in the notes section of the charts. Special buoys have additional text
explanation and symbols: on NY40 1870, the buoy labeled “
No.6 PERCH & SQUARE
” has
a flag-like symbol attached to the top of the body of the buoy symbol. SF40 1859/77 also
has a light marked on Alcatraz Island, but the symbol is a black dot with sunburst rays
radiating about it in all 360 degrees. The label “ALCATRAZ LIGHT” is in a sans serif,
Roman face, but the descriptor “Fog Bell” just below the other label is in an italic face
with serifs.
Time period three saw some additions to the labeling of aids. NY40 1878 has the
same buoy design as NY40 1870, but buoy No. 6 has a more descriptive label: “
( Perch &
square day mark)
”. It again is in sans serif italics, but has changed to sentence case from
all capital letters.
E1200 1881 and W1200 1888 both have a new feature: lights are identified by
bracketed numbers, which refer to a description in a table elsewhere on the chart. The
symbology on the chart is a black dot in these scans, but a note with the tables on both
charts indicate that “the principal sea-coast lights are colored”. This would have been
hand-coloring performed by clerks in the C&GS chart office. The E1200 also shows a
“Whistling Buoy” and the “Lt. Ship” at Sandy Hook, as do the larger-scale charts of that
area. W1200 has a novel feature, though. Marked on the chart is an arc centered on the
light at Cape Flattery that shows how far the light should be visible. The arc is labeled
“Vis. 19 m.F.W.R. ray”which stands for “Visible 19 nautical miles, Fixed White Red
ray,” according to the table on the chart. On the inside of the arc, tics point toward the
lighthouse.
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81
In the fourth time period, the clip for NY40 1902 shows a section of harbor just
inside the channels (the scan was poor and the detail of the channels was obscured). This
clip shows the West Bank Light, and marks out the red and white sectors with dashed
arcs and text arrayed along the arcs; ships needed to stay in the white sector. A note
accompanying the light indicates there is a “(SIREN)” for a fog signal.
The clip chosen for SF40 1901 shows a northern section of the bay, off Point San
Pablo. Representation of buoys has remained consistent since SF40 1883, but there are
several additional buoys shown.
E1200 1900 is the first chart available in a color scan, and it shows how the major
sea-coast lights were colored. A circle of orange highlights the major lights. The light
ship at Diamond Shoal is symbolized as a ship radiating light from its center (marked by
a dot), and the scan shows several lines below the ship, providing a waterline and
perspective. The symbol is also highlighted in orange.
Beginning with the fifth time period, nearly all of the scans are in color. NY40
1914 shows how Gedney Channel into New York Bay is now lined with pairs of buoys,
and the color scheme is discernible on the color scan. New to this chart, the location of
each buoy is marked with a dot that is now surrounded by a circle of seven rays.
According to the notes on the charts, this signifies a lighted buoy. Also new, the buoys
have a different labeling scheme: a single number, with a single letter in parentheses: for
example, “4(R)”.
For NY40 1917, both of those changes were refined. The seven rays around the
point of each lighted buoy locator are longer, making the location more predominant. The
buoy labeling scheme is also new, with lighted buoys having a short description of the
light in parentheses, followed by the buoy number in quotation marks:
(OccR) “2”
. Buoy
“4” is missing the closing parenthesis on the light’s description.
MH400 1916, a black and white scan, has a new symbol for the light ship at
Diamond Shoal. It appears to be a 2-masted boat with a circle at the top of each mast. A
protrudance from the bottom of the ship symbol marks it as having a submarine bell.
There is also a new symbol for the lighthouse at Cape Hatteras. Instead of largish black
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82
dot, there is now a small black dot surrounded by six short triangles. This may make it
possible to mark and measure the location of the lighthouse more accurately.
W1200 1917 is again in color, and important lights are colored in orange, as with
E1200 1900. It still has arcs marking where lights become visible, but they have dropped
the inward pointing tics. Additional lights (for example, Neah Bay) are shown, and a
lighted buoy is shown between Cape Flattery and Neah Bay. The lights have a lot of new
descriptive text on the chart, taking much of the information that had only been in the
table of information and placing an abbreviated version of it directly on the chart.
Information about the light is presented first, with information about audible fog signals
following within parentheses.
A very important new aid is shown at the entrance to the Columbia River, on the
second clip for W1200 1917. The abbreviation “(RFS)” stands for Radio Fog Signal,
according to the notes on the chart. A table in the notes gives further information on the
details of the signal sent out by the Columbia River Light Vessel. This chart was issued
in 1922, so the RFS information could have been added in the five years since the chart
was first printed.
Changes in the sixth time period are minimal, and mostly have to do with
changes in the aids, rather than to the design of chart elements. NY40 1926 has the same
symbolization as NY40 1917, but the number of buoys in Gedney Channel has dropped
from eight to six. On SF40 1926 the design of aids and explanatory content matches that
of the other charts of the time period. Compared to SF40 1926, the light at The Brothers
still has a fog whistle but for part of the year it uses a bell. The only apparent change to
MH400 1922 since 1916 is the addition of a symbol for a sunken wreck due north of the
Diamond Shoal light ship, between the two closest sets of shoal water. It is labeled “
PD
”,
meaning Position Doubtful. GJF200 1922 has added an Echo Board at Smith Island. As
with SF40 1926, the design and content of the descriptive text has been updated from the
previous example, 1895. E1200 1927 shows an updated symbol for the light vessel at
Diamond Shoal. It has a single mast, compared to the two-masted symbol on MH400
1922 and W1200 1917.
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83
Seventh time period
The example clip for NY40 1936 once again shows the West Bank light.
Compared to the 1902 edition, there is much more information provided about the
characteristics of the light (
Occ ev 5 sec 69ft vis 14 m
), and the sectors of the light are more
clearly shown through a full circle, rather than intersecting arcs.
On MH400 1938, orange rings now note the location of radiobeacons and Naval
radio direction finder stations (see
NRC at Cape Hatteras
), while lights are still highlighted
with a circle of orange. Also, minor lights are shown as five-pointed stars, while major
lights are shown as six-pointed stars.
E1200 1938 also gained orange circles around radiobeacons (RBn) and Naval
radio direction finder stations.
The eighth time period sees the end of the orange highlight, to be replaced by
magenta rings (in most instances). NY40 1944 shows lights within New York Harbor,
marked by the magenta rings around the six-point stars.
With MH400 1942 an increase in administrative rules is shown on the charts.
There are areas marked off with dashed lines, or labeled “
DANGER AREA
”, for example.
It is also the earliest example of the big magenta ring that symbolizes radiobeacon. When
a light or lightship is also a radio source, it now receives two magenta rings, creating a
bull’s-eye effect.
SF40 1947A and 1947b/57 both have examples of administrative areas—“
Cable
area
” and “
RESTRICTED
”.
E1200 1948 and W1200 1945/54 both show LORAN stations, although only the
former is overprinted with LORAN lines.
Context
The charts provide not only a record of where navigational were located at a given
time, but also what types of aids were in use. Over the time period covered here there
were many changes to the types of aids being used in U.S. waters. It is almost a side note
that there were changes to how particular aids were represented.
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84
A system for representing buoys through a set of standard symbols was tested in
1869 and quickly implemented. This system replaced the previous practice of having a
single symbol plus text labels describing each buoy’s characteristics (U.S. Treasury
Department et al. 1872, 59).
Shoal Water
Dangerous shallow waters, or shoal water, are represented with two different
techniques over the course of the first 100 years of the C&GS. Such waters are set-off
with a distinct representation to warn navigators to stay clear of places dangerous for
them to have their vessel. Please refer to Layout 04—Shoal Water for references in this
section.
NY40 1844 is a fine example of the first mode of representation, sanding.
Sanding is created by engraving a multitude of dots to create continuous-tone swaths on
the chart, with each range represented by a different size or density of dots. The transition
between different ranges is shown by a band of dots heavier than the other dots in the
range. NY40 1844 uses sanding to represent four depth ranges, as expressed in the notes
area: “The dotted surfaces represent the bottom at the respective depths of 6, 12, 18, & 21
feet.” The text in the center of the clip, just above the “East Bank” label, reads “Dry at
low Water”. The shape of the shoal has much more detail than the available soundings
show.
NY40 1845 also has four different gradations for sanding the shoal water. This is
the last chart seen to have sanding for four different depth ranges. Beginning with NY40
1853 and continuing through NY40 1926, all editions of this chart have three gradations
of shoal water represented by sanding, with divisions at 1, 2, and 3 fathoms. SF40 shares
this design for shoal water over the same time period. The design of the sanding does
change some, however. NY40 1917 includes sanding that fades completely out in large
expanses. More than other charts, the sanding is heavier at the transition lines between
depth ranges, and gradually fades out to white. Older charts have less emphasis on the
transition lines between the depths, and do not fade out completely.
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The second method of representing shoal waters is to print a blue tint inside a
certain depth curve. NY40 first sees this method of representation in the seventh time
period on the 1936 edition.
MH400 1916 includes sanding only for outside waters less than 3 fathoms.
Waters inside the barrier islands, and other bays, are left free of sanding. This is a choice
not seen on other editions of this or other charts. Even the Sailing Charts of the East
Coast have a representation of danger for inside waters.
MH400 1922 presents another unique representation, both sanding and a blue tint
inside 3 fathoms. MH400 is the only chart examined that combines sanding with color—
the other five charts drop sanding when color is added. This chart is particularly
anomalous because the next edition seen, MH400 1938, drops the blue tint but leaves the
sanding. The two later editions of MH400, 1942 and 1951, again add blue tint over
sanding, but the blue expands to 10 fathoms, while the sanding remains at three fathoms.
GJF200 is the only chart to not receive the blue tint for shoal waters in any of the
editions examined for this project. It is also the only chart aside from NY40 with
variation as to which fathom lines received sanding. When the chart was reconstructed
between the 1922 and the 1933 editions, sanding lines were dropped for 1 and 2 fathoms,
and instead marked everything inside 3 fathoms with a single band of sanding. For the
1941/48 edition, however, the 1 fathom line was brought back.
As for the Sailing Charts, both represent shoal water first with sanding in side 3
fathoms, then with blue tint in later editions.
Table 12 shows whether or not chart editions have shoal water represented by
sanding or other methods, and what depth divisions are shown (in fathoms). The Harbor
Charts consistently have sanding for the 1, 2, and 3 fathom lines for time periods two
through six, after which they transitioned to a ribbon of blue inside the shallow water
line. This line changed from 3 fathoms to 6 fathoms for the last SF40 examined here.
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86
Table 12. Shoal water represented by sanding or color, in fathoms
Time
Period
NY40
SF40
MH400
GJF200
E1200
W1200
1, 2, 3, 3½
1, 2, 3, 3½
1, 2, 3
1, 2, 3
none
1, 2, 3
3
none
none
3
1, 2, 3
1, 2, 3
3
3
4
1, 2, 3
1, 2, 3
1, 2, 3
3
1, 2, 3
3
1, 2, 3
3
6
1, 2, 3
1, 2, 3
3 (<3 blue)
1, 2, 3
3
7
none (<3 blue)
3
3
3
3
none (<3 blue)
none (<3 blue)
3 (<10 blue)
1, 3
none (<10 blue)
none (<6 blue)
3 (<10 blue)
none (<10 blue)
none (<30 blue)
9
none (<3 blue)
none (<6 blue)
none (<10 blue)
none (<10 blue)
none (<10 blue)
none (<30 blue)
1
2
5
8
The smaller scale charts have much less surface area that could be covered by
sanding, and are not designed to be used when navigating near shallow water, placing
emphasis elsewhere. The General Charts have differences between the two charts based
on scale. GJF200 uses the same representation as the Harbor Charts, with sanding at 1, 2,
and 3 fathoms on its finished editions through time period six. MH400 includes sanding
only at 3 fathoms, matching the Sailing Charts.
With the exception of GJF200, the eighth time period sees all of the charts
migrate away from sanding as the representation of shoal water to a ribbon of blue tint.
There are differences in which fathom line is chosen for the danger line, based on the
type of navigation being done with the chart (Harbor, General, or Sailing), and the type of
coast. The west coast, with its steeper bottom topography, apparently requires a deeper
danger line to achieve safe navigation and sufficient distance from navigational threats.
W1200 1945/54’s blue tint is at 30 fathoms, versus 10 fathoms or E1200 1948. SF40
1947b/57’s danger line is six fathoms, versus three for NY40 1944.
Context
Sanding is very time-consuming to create by hand, and is therefore very
expensive to have on charts. Preliminary charts did not have sanding; this step was
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87
skipped in an effort to get the information out to the public quickly. It was added to the
finished charts done in the “finest style”.
When charts began to be reproduced by photolithography, symbols such as
sanding could have been applied through etching, or Ben-Day dots. Instead there was a
movement in that era to make charts simpler and more legible. The C&GS moved away
from representing shallows as a shaded area in black, and instead used the color printing
abilities of offset lithography to add a blue tint to dangerous shallows. The color removed
the need to shade through sanding, and the representation was dropped from newly
constructed charts by the mid-1920s, although it remained on existing charts until
reconstructed.
Bathymetric Contours
Another graphic form used to represent the bottom of water bodies is the
bathymetric contour. Essentially the same as topographic contours used to represent land
surface above the water, bathymetric contours represent the land surface under the water.
While the purpose of sanding is to warn of danger, depth contours are more generally
applied to aid in navigating, and are present both in shallow water and in waters
considered safe to navigate. Their purpose is to communicate the shape of the bottom
and, therefore, the depth of water, through generalization. Please refer to Layout 04—
Shoal Water, and Layout 06—Deep Water for examples used in this section. Table 13
shows which charts have depth contours for which fathom lines, and how the contours
are formed.
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Table 13. Bathymetric contours: fathoms marked with depth contours, and the form of the contour
line.
Time
Period
NY40
SF40
MH400
GJF200
E1200
W1200
none
none
none
4, 6, 10
Dashes & Dots
none
none
10, 20, 30, 100
Dashes & Dots
1, 3
Dots
10, 100
Dots
3
4
Dashes
4, 5, 6
Dashes & Dots
10, 50, 100
Dashes & Dots
none
4
4
Dashes
4, 5, 6
Dashes & Dots
10, 50
Dashes & Dots
10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
100, 1000
Dashes & Dots
4
Dashes
5, 10, 100
Dashes & Dots
5
Dots
30, 100
Dashes & Dots
6
5
Dots
5, 6
Dashes
5, 10, 100
Dashes & Dots
10, 20
Dashes & Dots
10, 20, 50, 100, 1000
Dashes & Dots
7
1, 2, 3, 5
Dots
5, 10, 100
Dashes & Dots
10, 100
Dashes & Dots
10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
100, 500, 1000
Dashes & Dots
30, 100
Dashes & Dots
1, 2, 3, 5
Dots
1, 2, 3, 5, 6
Dashes & Dots
5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
100, 500, 1000
Dashes & Dots
10, 100
Dashes & Dots
10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
100, 500, 1000
Dashes & Dots
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10
Dashes & Dots
5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
100, 500, 1000
Dashes & Dots
10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
100, 500, 1000, 1500
Dashes & Dots
30, 100, 500,
1000
Dashes & Dots
9
1, 2, 3, 5
Lines
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10
Lines
3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40,
50, 100, 500, 1000,
1500
Lines
1, 3, 10, 100
Dashes & Dots
10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
100, 500, 1000
Dashes & Dots
30, 100, 500,
1000, 1500
Lines
1
2
5
8
The first charts did not have depth contours. Several charts have contours in the
second time period but not NY40 or W1200. From those earliest examples it appears
there was a different form of dots, dashes, and lines used to construct each depth line.
Even though different depths were represented on each chart, the way each depth was
represented was consistent. The poor quality of some of the scans of the earliest charts
make determining the exact form of some of the contours impossible, but later scans are
clearer and distinguishable. For the most part, the system used is as shown in How To
Read a Nautical Chart (Calder 2003).
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