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rooms for second and third graders with reading disabilities. The study was intended to compare
synthetic and analytic phonics to a sight-word approach, but, in this school-assigned sample, the
synthetic phonics group had pretest and IQ scores substantially higher than those of the other two
treatments, so only the analytic phonics vs. sight word comparison could be compared. The
Recipe for Reading program emphasizes an approach in which children work as a whole group to
practice onsets and rimes, in which they learned word families (e.g., cat, rat, mat, sat; light, sight,
night). Children wrote target words, discussed their meanings, and played games emphasizing
how changing initial letters or following letters changed sounds. This program was contrasted to
a small group administration of the Edmark Reading Program, which emphasizes whole-word
identification, matching words and pictures, and using words in increasingly complex sentences.
The two approaches were compared in an urban Southwestern school district. There were 46
children in Recipe for Reading and 39 matched children in the Edmark sight word program. On
posttests, adjusted for pretests, there were no significant differences. On a word reading measure,
the effect size was -0.24 (n.s.), favoring the Edmark program.
Hatcher, Goetz, Snowling, Hulme, Gibbs, & Smith (2006) carried out a comparison of
two intervention programs for six year olds. One, Early Literacy Support (ELS), is widely used
in the UK. It provides struggling children in groups of six with 20 hours of structured instruction
from a teaching assistant. An alternative method, called Reading Intervention (RI), provided 10
hours of group instruction and 10 hours of one-to-one tutoring. The programs also differed in
curricula and teaching methods. ELS provides a sequence of activities focusing on phonics and
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74
sentence reading using games, songs, and movement as well as direct teaching. In RI, there are
60 20-minute lessons focusing on letter identification, phonological awareness, and writing.
Individual sessions included reading an easy book, working on a new book, assessment using
running records, and shared reading.
The children were selected from among 16 schools in the North of England. There were
59 RI children and 69 ELS. Children were pretested, posttested at the end of the 12-week
intervention, and then followed up in the next school year, 7 months after the instruction began.
Adjusting for pretests, differences immediately after intervention were +0.15 (p<.05) favoring RI
on Letter-Sound Identification, +0.08 (n.s.) on Early Word Reading, and -0.08 (n.s.) on British
Abilities Scale Word Reading, for a mean of +0.05. At seven-month followup, there were no
significant differences, with effect sizes of +0.09 for Letter-Sound Identification, -0.02 for Early
Word Reading, and -0.09 for BAS Word Reading.
Conclusions: Small Group Tutorials
A total of 20 studies evaluated 18 different models of small group tutorials. Sixteen of
these used random assignment to conditions. The overall mean effect size was +0.31.
It is important to note that the studies that met the inclusion criteria were not run-of-the-
mill Title I pullout programs. Instead, all were named programs with extensive training,
materials, and other supports, and a strong emphasis on phonics.
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Classroom Instructional Process Programs
One potential solution to the reading problems of many struggling readers is to enhance
the quality of instruction in their regular classrooms. In previous reviews of beginning reading
and upper-elementary reading programs (Slavin et al., in press), classroom instructional process
programs were clearly the most effective and well-evaluated approaches for children in general.
Introduction of training in programs that have been successfully evaluated with students in
general, such as various forms of cooperative learning and phonics-oriented class programs,
could be particularly beneficial for children who would otherwise have difficulty in learning to
read. From the perspective of response to intervention, improving classroom instruction is Tier 1
of a plan to improve learning for struggling readers and reduce special education placements.
Use of effective classroom strategies does not preclude individually targeted interventions for the
hopefully small number of children who still need them, despite high-quality classroom teaching.
Table 4 summarizes research on the outcomes of these types of programs for children in
the lowest performance levels of their classes.
=============
TABLE 4 HERE
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Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition
Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition, or CIRC (Stevens, Madden, Slavin, &
Farnish, 1987) is a cooperative learning program in which, following teacher instruction to the
whole class, children work in 4-member teams on partner reading, comprehension questions,
story-related writing, and comprehension activities. Teams earn recognition based on the average
scores earned on individual tests given each week. Several large-scale evaluations have found
positive effects of CIRC on students’ reading gains in grades 2-6 (see Slavin et al., in press).
CIRC is used both as a stand-alone program and as the upper-elementary component of the
Success for All comprehensive reform model, where it is called Reading Wings (Slavin &
Madden, 2009). This section focuses on effects of this whole-class method on children identified
as remedial or special education students.
Stevens & Slavin (1995a) carried out a large 2-year matched evaluation of CIRC in a
working-class suburb of Baltimore. The experiment included 1299 students in grades 2-6, of
which 137 (72E, 65C) were students with learning disabilities. Analyses for these children found
effect sizes of +0.40 (p<.05) for CAT Vocabulary and +0.31 (p<.05) for CAT Comprehension
after one year and +0.37 (p<.05) for Vocabulary and +0.32 (p<.05) for Comprehension after two
years. The mean effect size at the end of the study was +0.35.
Stevens & Slavin (1995b) evaluated CIRC as part of a larger schoolwide intervention
called the Cooperative Elementary School. The study took place over a 2-year period in a
suburban Maryland district. A total of 1012 students in Grades 2-6 participated. Students were
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pretested on CAT reading and then posttested each spring. Separate analyses for students in
special education (n=40E, 36C) found effect sizes of +0.29 (n.s.) for Reading Comprehension
and +0.26 (n.s.) for Reading Vocabulary after 1 year, but after two years effect sizes were +0.85
(p<.01) for Reading Comprehension and +0.76 (p<.01) for Reading Vocabulary, for a mean of
+0.81.
Bramlett (1994) evaluated CIRC among third graders in schools in rural southern Ohio.
82 students using CIRC were compared to 67 matched control students. Controlling for pretests,
CAT posttests slightly favored SFA on Comprehension (ES=+0.33), Total Reading (ES=+0.33),
Word Analysis (ES=+0.56), and Vocabulary (ES=+0.30, n.s.), for a mean of +0.38.
Peer-Assisted Literacy Strategies (PALS)
Peer-Assisted Literacy Strategies (PALS) is a technique in which children work in pairs,
taking turns as teacher and learner, to learn a structured sequence of literacy skills, such as
phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. Children use
a simple error-correction strategy with each other, under guidance from the teacher.
Mathes & Babyak (2001) carried out an evaluation of PALS over a 14-week period in a
medium-sized district in Florida. Three treatments were compared, but one, a combination of
PALS and small-group, skills-focused mini lessons, had a duration of less than 12 weeks. The
remaining 20 first grade classes were randomly assigned to PALS and control conditions. The
three lowest achievers and one average and one high achiever were selected within each class for
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measurement, so the number of low achieving children was 27 in 10 PALS classes and 29 in 10
control classes. The students were 50% White, 48% African American. Adjusting for pretests,
effect sizes for PALS compared to control were +0.51 for Woodcock Word Identification, +0.89
for Woodcock Word Attack, +0.71 for Woodcock Basic Skills, and +0.23 for Woodcock Passage
Comprehension. Averaging across Woodcock measures, effect sizes were +0.59.
In a 16-week experiment, Mathes, Torgesen, and Allor (2001) evaluated PALS among
first graders in a southeastern district. Three treatments were compared, but one, a combination
of PALS and computerized phonological awareness training, had pretest differences with the
control group of more than 50% of a standard deviation. Students were 47% White and 51%
African American. Twelve classes were assigned to PALS and twelve matched classes were
assigned to a control condition. The four lowest achievers and one average and one high achiever
were selected within each class for measurement, making the number of low achieving children
42 in PALS classes and 33 in control classes. Adjusting for pretests, effect sizes for PALS
compared to control were +0.48 for TOWRE Nonword Efficiency, +0.34 for TOWRE Word
Efficiency, +0.42 for Woodcock Word Identification, +0.58 for Woodcock Word Attack, +0.55
for Woodcock Basic Skills, and +0.50 for Woodcock Passage Comprehension. Across
Woodcock and TOWRE measures, effect sizes averaged +0.48.
Mathes, Howard, Allen, & Fuchs (1998) evaluated PALS in a 16-week study in a
southeastern city. Twenty first grade teachers in 6 schools participated. Assignment was partly
random and partly matched, so this was considered a matched study. The three lowest achievers
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and one average and one high achiever were selected within each class for measurement, so the
total sample of low achievers was 28 children in 10 PALS classes and 28 children in 10 control
classes. PALS procedures were used 3 times a week in 35-minute sessions focusing on sounds
and words and partner read-alouds, while control classes were described as using traditional
whole language models. On Woodcock posttests adjusting for pretests, PALS students
outperformed the control students on Word Identification (ES= +0.51), Word Attack
(ES=+0.69), and Passage Comprehension (ES=+0.19). Averaging across the 3 scales, the effect
size was +0.46.
Mathes, Torgesen, Clancy-Menchetti, Sani, Nicholas, Robinson, & Grek (2003)
evaluated PALS with low-achieving first graders in a 16-week study in a southeastern school
district. Teachers were assigned to one of three conditions: PALS (N = 7 teachers, 31 students);
teacher-directed instruction (TDI), a small-group model that used the same curriculum but no
peer activities (N = 7 teachers, 30 students); and control (N = 8 teachers, 28 students). Although
teachers were randomly assigned to PALS and TDI conditions, some were randomly assigned to
the control group while other controls were matched, so the overall design is considered
matched. Students in PALS classes experienced 35-minute sessions each week, while those in
TDI received 30-minute sessions each week. The students in the PALS condition gained
substantially more than controls on all measures, although not all differences were statistically
significant. Averaging across five subtests, PALS students averaged an effect size of +0.37 in
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comparison to controls adjusting for pretests. However, PALS students scored nonsignificantly
less well than those in the TDI condition, adjusting for pretests.
Same-Age Peer Tutoring
Eldredge & Quinn (1988) designed and evaluated a dyadic reading approach with second
graders. Children reading below grade level were assigned to pairs with normal-progress reading
partners. Grade-level texts were used. The partners “set the pace for reading, read in phase units,
and touched each word as it was being read.” (p.42). Partners were changed each week. In a
year-long experiment classes within 5 middle-class elementary schools in Provo, Utah were
randomly assigned to dyadic reading (n=32) or control (n=32) conditions in a randomized quasi-
experiment. Control students were taught in homogeneous basal reading groups. Within classes,
the lowest achievers within each school’s experimental and control classes were matched on
pretests and gender. On Gates-MacGinitie posttests adjusting for pretests, the low achievers in
the dyad groups scored substantially higher than controls on Comprehension (ES=+1.33, p<.05)
and Vocabulary (ES=+1.77, p<.01) for a mean of +1.55. Put another way, 27 out of 32 students
in the dyad group (84%) scored at or above grade level, while 6 of 32 students (19%) scored at
grade level in the control group. The authors ascribe the effects to the fact that the reading
partners enabled the poor readers to use grade-level texts, while similar students in the control
group were taught using below-level textbooks.
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