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C XML is designed for identifying information about the structure and

content of text documents, rather than their appearance. Although it is

perfectly possible to identify and store information about appearances,

this information is usually kept in a CSS or XSL stylesheet. If you need

to record information about the formatting or appearance of an existing

document, there are features in theTEISchema/DTD for doing so.

D  A common requirement in the ﬂat data model used in many

e-commerce systems is to export XML data to the CSV

(Comma-Separated Values) data format used as input to spreadsheets.

There is a simple example of a short script to do thishere. More

complex and sophisticated routines could easily be written using XSLT

or other XML processing software. Users should note that while

conversion to CSV is adequate for simple data formats, it is an

inappropriate format for normal XML text documents which use Mixed

Content models.

D  Many XML projects require the import of existing documents

in non-XML formats. The import of existing HTML documents is

explained inQuestion3.5onpage39, and if you can convert your

documents to XHTML; this is probably the simplest method.

OpenOﬃce saves Open Document Format (ODF) ﬁles, which are the

international standard for oﬃce XML documents. Word ﬁles can be

saved as WordML (2003) or Oﬃce Open XML (2007: Microsoft’s

alternative to ODF). In both cases an XSLT transformation can be

written to create a suitable XML import format. For complex

documents in other formats, however, specialist conversion software is

needed. Some XML editors are beginning to oﬀer inbuilt conversion of

other formats, and there are many standalone conversion systems

available (some at high cost) for formats which are otherwise not easily

machine-accessible via markup, like PDF, PostScript, L

X, Quark

XPress, and most proprietary document formats. The critical point is

that almost all non-XML (non-SGML) document are formatted to make

them human-readable and pretty, not to make them machine-readable.

It is therefore often the case that the information required to make the

document meaningful in XML simply doesn’t exist in these formats.

The only alternative for this class of documents is to have them

rekeyed or scanned into XML by one of the many companies in the

101

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Indian subcontinent or the Paciﬁc Rim.

D XML markup has a few disadvantages:

• It can be verbose unless element and attribute names are chosen

with care. In large documents the markup overhead need not be

large, but in short messages it can be signiﬁcantly more than the

actual data, especially when the element or attribute names are

concocted by machine.

• Overlapping markup is not permitted (an element cannot start

inside one element and end inside another): element markup must

nest hierarchically.

• Most applications require the document to be loaded to memory in

its entirety before it can be parsed and processed. This can

become a problem for truly huge documents (larger than the

addressable memory of a computer system). Arguably, XML is the

perhaps wrong tool to use for ﬁles this size, but there are

streaming systems which will enable them to be processed.

• Some of the software is truly mediocre.

E To edit (open) an XML ﬁle you should use anXMLeditor. It is

possible to open an XML ﬁle using any standard plaintext editor or

even a wordprocessor, but be aware that they may try to reformat the

ﬁle incorrectly because they don’t understand XML.

E An entity is a unit of storage in XML. It can be as small as a

character or as large as a whole document. Four types of entity are

declarable:

G  which can be like string-replacement macros:

<!ENTITY IBM "International Business s Machines">

These can be used for shorthand data entry or to guarantee

uniform spelling like &IBM; and they get replaced when the ﬁle is

parsed.

They can also represent external ﬁles:

<!ENTITY chap5 5 SYSTEM "chapter5.xml">

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which can be used as a ﬁle-inclusion mechanism at the point

where you insert &chap5;. External general ﬁle entities must not

contain the XML Declaration or any Document Type Declaration.

D  These are like external general ﬁle entities

except that they specify the type of data they contain, using a

declared Notation, so that the parser and application can decide

how to handle them (eg include them or hand them to another

program speciﬁc to their type of medium):

<!ELEMENT link (#PCDATA)> <!ATTLIST link to ENTITY #REQUIRED>

...

<!NOTATION PDF PUBLIC

"-//Adobe//NOTATION Portable Document Format//EN//PDF"

"http://partners.adobe.com/public/developer/pdf/index_reference.html">

<!ENTITY pricelist t SYSTEM "/sales/pricelist.pdf" NDATA PDF>

...

<para>Please refer to our <link to="pricelist">current price list</link>.</para>

This provides an extremely robust method of deﬁning an external

entity once and allowing it to be referenced multiple times (if the

external ﬁlename changes, you only have to update the entity

declaration).

C  like á to represent characters that users

without the required keyboard features may want to enter like ‘á’;

P E are like General Entities but can only be

referenced within a DTD. They are used for control of content

models, inclusion or exclusion of declarations, and modiﬁcation of

modular constructs:

<!ENTITY % local.qandaset.mix "|bibliodiv">

(to use an example from the DTD for this FAQ) where the mix of

element types in the content model for qandaset is speciﬁed by the

entities qandaset.mix (deﬁned by DocBook) and by

local.qandaset.mix (deﬁnable by the user [me]) so that the DTD

can be tweaked without having to be edited.

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General entity names, including XML document entities and character

entities, always start with an ampersand (&) and end with a semicolon

(;), and can be used anywhere in your document. Parameter entities

can only be used in a DTD: they start with a percent sign (%) and end

with a semicolon.

E To count the number of occurrences of a node in an XML

document, you can use the count function in XSL[T], eg

<xsl:value-of select="count(//chapter)"/>

To apply a counter to a repetitive element type, use the xsl:number

element, eg

<xsl:number select="appendix" level="any" format="A"/>

For more on XSLT, seeQuestion2.5onpage25.

E  XML is a markup language, not a programming

language, so it has no concept of environment variables. However, if

you are using a DTD, and accessing your XML ﬁles under program

control (eg in a script rather than by hand) it is possible to modify the

value of declared attributes or entities (eg with a stream-editor like sed)

before the ﬁle is opened, and thereby to pass values from the external

environment into the document. A similar approach would be possible

with Schemas.

E Escaping means temporarily switching the way a program works

to do something diﬀerent with the data. In SGML, it was conventional to

use only ASCII characters in your documents because keyboards,

screens, and fonts for other characters were often unavailable. To

escape from the limitations of this format for non-ASCII characters like

accents and symbols a set of mnemonic names was available, preﬁxed

by an ampersand (&) to turn the escapement on, and followed by a

semicolon (;) to turn the it oﬀ, so an á was given as á.

XML allows you to use Unicode, so any character or symbol in any

language can be entered as itself. If you are using UTF-8 encoding in

your documents, there is no need to use escaping except for the two

markup symbols (< and &). However, not everyone has a Unicode

104

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editor, and complete Unicode fonts are very large, so it is conventional

in alphabetic languages to pick an encoding which allows you to use the

majority of the characters you need, and to use escaping for the

occasional other characters.

F- You cannot declare character data content or attribute

values as ﬂoating-point (or many other data types) using DTDs. To do

that you need to use a Schema.

GTT The Gnome Time Tracker is a component of the Gnome interface

used extensively on Linux systems. Part of its internal data is

conﬁgured in XML.

G I am not aware of any computer games written using XML yet,

although XML is used in some of the internal control and conﬁguration

ﬁles used by games.

I A term used intheHTTPspeciﬁcation to describe the

side-eﬀect-free nature of repeated requests for a resource.

J ECMAscript (to give it its real name) has nothing to do with the

Java language. It’s designed to run inside browser windows, navigating

or acting on the markup of a page to create dynamic content, validate

forms, or instantiate objects in ways that are not possible with static

HTML. It is also designed so that it cannot write to the user’s local

ﬁlesystem, for obvious security reasons, so it cannot easily be used to

create XML ﬁles locally, although there are some back-doors in

Microsoft software which allow modiﬁed pages to be saved to disk.

L  XML ﬁles can be created using any of the three standard

newline representations: CR (Mac), LF (Unix), or CR/LF (Windows).

Use of anything else may lead to undeﬁned behaviour (so old DOS

editors that use LF/CR may create unusable ﬁles). XML processors

normalise all line-ends to LF.

Line-breaking in your output is governed by your rendering engine (eg

abrowser, a typesetter, etc). Your DTD or Schema may deﬁne special

elements or entities to be used on rare occasions when a forced

linebreak is required, but this is not normally something done in XML

(exception: reconstruction of historical documents using the TEI).

105

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L To process some XML repetitively, you need to use a processing

language which allows looping or the cyclical handling of a deﬁned set

of nodes. For example in XSLT, to output all chapter titles to make a

table of contents (ie out of natural document position), you could say:

<xsl:for-each select="//chapter">

<li>

<xsl:value-of select="title"/>

</li>

</xsl:for-each>

M TheSynchronizedMultimediaIntegrationLanguage (SMIL)

provides an XML vocabulary for simple authoring of interactive

audiovisual presentations. SMIL is typically used for ‘rich

media’/multimedia presentations which integrate streaming audio and

video with images, text or any other media type.

P, C,  I P I’m not a lawyer, and

this is not legal advice. If you’re worried, see a psychiatrist ﬁrst ,

Since the USA (and, increasingly, elsewhere) stopped sanity-checking

patent applications, pretty much anyone can patent anything in these

countries, regardless of whether or not it already exists. If you are

suﬃciently intellectually bankrupt, you can then start sending invoices

to companies and even individuals demanding payment of license fees

for continued use.

XML was drafted during 1995 and ﬁrst published in 1996, so anyone

claiming they invented pointy-bracket self-deﬁning hierarchically-nested

structured markup after that is probably a few elements short of a

Schema. XML is based on SGML, which is an international standard

codiﬁed as ISO 8879:1986, and it was preceded by numerous other

closely-related markup systems, so anyone claiming they invented it

after that date is equally wide of the markup.

Lots of subsequent derivative technologies which owe their existence to

the SGML and XML groundwork quite possibly are valid patents, in the

same way that ﬁre was not originally patented but matches and lighters

were.

106

Patents were originally designed for new physical inventions. Their use

for methodologies and algorithms extended the concept into the realm

of ideas, which many people regard as deeply suspect. The patenting of

natural phenomena like genes (which are pre-existing parts of Nature

like politicians and pond scum), is meaningless and intellectually void,

although legally enforceable in the USA and elsewhere.

countries (notably the USA and France) you cannot enforce this unless

you register your interest. Copyright persists for a number of years

after your death (EU: 75, diﬀerent elsewhere) in order to let your

descendants beneﬁt from sales of your work.

newspapers, works of art, web sites, or computer programs. It exists to

prevent others stealing your work and selling it. You can quote snippets

of other people’s work without permission, such as a line of a poem, or

abar of music, or a sentence from a novel, provided you say whose it is

and where to ﬁnd it: otherwise you need to ask permission beforehand.

computer programs, making the use of patents for them unnecessary

overkill.

Intellectual Property identiﬁes you as the owner of the thoughts and

ideas which may ﬁnd their physical manifestation in patentable

inventions or copyrightable publications. Even if you sell oﬀ your

patents, and for long after your copyrights have expired, you can still be

seen as the person who dreamed up the idea, and some countries (eg

the UK) allow you formally to assert your right to be so identiﬁed,

regardless of what happens to the book or the gizzmo.

You should always acknowledge the intellectual property of others,

especially when you use it in furtherance of your own aims. Pretending

that someone else’s smart ideas are your own is probably a worse

oﬀence than trying to patent ﬁre, water, the wheel, or XML.

P Technique for reducing complex sequential and parallel

processing requirements to a set of components which can be

completed under program control. The term is taken from the Unix

facility for redirecting the output of one command into the input of

107

another (called a ‘pipe’), in eﬀect creating a chain or pipeline through

which data passes on its way from source to result.

The W3C has aNotepending submission on an XML Pipeline

Deﬁnition Language which could be used to deﬁne a pipeline in a

portable, vendor-independent manner.

RSS TheReallySimpleSyndication format was designed to allow news sites

to process updates by machine, and it evolved into a semi-standard

format for blogs and other frequently-changing sites to notify the world

of changes. Unfortunately it was never properly deﬁned, and has

multiple incompatible and undocumented versions. It was about to be

superseded by a vastly better language called Atom, but Microsoft have

recently announced their support for RSS, so it looks like we may be

stuck with a lemon for years to come.

‘Newsreaders’ (RSS readers) are available for all platforms, both

standalone and as browser plugins. Do not confuse these with

programs of the same description designed to provide access to the

Usenet News service, which is a diﬀerent thing entirely (and which you

will need to readcomp.text.xml).

R Using XSLT or XSL:FO transformation (or other similar

conversion systems), information marked up in XML can be rendered

to almost any target: HTML, PDF, audio, Braille, and almost any

plain-text format (eg L

X). How it appears (or sounds) is the result of

using stylesheets or other transformation logic activated by the markup.

SML TheSpacecraftMarkupLanguage is an application of XML.

TheStandardML programming language is not.

Did you meanSGML?

SOAP AW3Cstandardfor the ‘deﬁnition of the XML-based information

which can be used for exchanging structured and typed information

between peers in a decentralised, distributed environment’. Most

commonly used in Web Services for message-passing.

Originally theSimpleObjectAccessProtocol, the acronym is now

undeﬁned, or expressed as the Service-Oriented Access Protocol.

108

S You can search individual XML ﬁles on a sequential, stand-alone,

unindexed command-line basis using programs such aslxgrep or

lxprintf,partsofthe LTXML2toolkit. Manyeditorsincludeasearch

facility as well

XSLTallowsalimitedsearchfacilitysimplybyusingfunctionslike

contains, starts-with, and ends-with. XSLT2 adds Regular Expressions.

XQueryisafully-ﬂedgedsearchlanguageforXML.

The Saxon XSLT processor comes with an implementation ofXQuery

(see also theXQLFAQ), which can accept queries either from the

command line or from a ﬁle. Saxon can also use a control ﬁle to

specify groups of XML ﬁles to be searched together.

For indexed searching (for speed) you need an XQuery search tool that

implements an indexing engine which reads and understands markup.

These are usually implemented as part of a ‘native’ XML database

system such aseXist (and many others), which run either stand-alone

or in parallel with an XML server likeCocoon.

Traditional relational databases (MySQL, Oracle, etc) tend to store XML

as undistinguished strings or BLOBs, using bolt-on XML backends to

handle the markup on import and export. ‘Native’ XML databases have

the XML handling built-in, and can be conﬁgured for granularity, to

store at a speciﬁc element level, making markup-sensitive searching

much more eﬀective.

S XML SeeQuestion4.12onpage85

S To sort a repetitive set of XML elements in XSL[T], use the xsl:sort

element, eg

<xsl:for-each select="//acronym">

<xsl:sort select="@abbrev"/>

<xsl:value-of select="@abbrev"/>

<xsl:text>: </xsl:text>

<xsl:apply-templates/>

</xsl:for-each>

S  XML has only two special markup characters in

normal documents:

109

• The open angle bracket or less-than sign (<) which begins a

start-tag or end-tag like <report> or </table>;

• The ampersand character (&) which starts an entity reference like

á for á or § for §.

Contrary to popular opinion, the closing angle bracket or greater-than

(>) and the semicolon (;) are not special characters in normal text: they

only acquire their temporary special meaning once one of the two

markup characters has been encountered.

In DTDs, the percent sign (%) has a special meaning in entity

declarations: it deﬁnes the entity as a parameter entity, meaning that

it can only be used inside the DTD, not in a document text, and only for

data substitution (a kind of simple macro).

The exclamation mark (!) acquires a special meaning immediately after

aless-than sign: when followed by one of the declaration keywords in a

DTD it signals the start of Declaration; when followed by two dashes it

signals the start of a comment (ended by another two dashes and a

greater-than sign.

TMX TMX is a standard method to describe translation memory data that is

being exchanged among tools and/or translation vendors for

human-language translation (part of the OSCAR project from LISA).

T You can deﬁne tables any way you wish in XML

(seeQuestion3.11onpage49) but there are a few existing table models

which have become so widely-used (and supported by software) that it

would need a very compelling reason to invent something new. There

are more details in Flynn,1998 §2.3.7.

HTML HTML tables were invented by Mosaic (now Netscape) and ﬁrst

appeared in the HTML2 DTD. In all versions of HTML and

XHTML they deﬁne a very simple but practical model, with very

few reﬁnements, suitable for web use and for rudimentary

printing. Their chief advantage is that in a browser the cell heights

and widths (and thus the column widths) expand or contract

automatically to accommodate the amount of text contained in

them. Most other table models assume the widths of the columns

and the height of the cells will be speciﬁed in advance (which you

110

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