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THE URBAN FUTURE 21 – Chapter IV: Rising to the Urban Challenge: Governance and Policy

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totally by the farebox, result from unusually high residential densities as well as workplace densities;

Hong Kong is the most conspicuous example, but is almost unique (and, because of the system of

public landownership, it can directly benefit from the creation of urban land values around train

stations). Elsewhere, rail transit systems can be supported only on the basis of draconian restrictions

on the purchase and use of private cars, as in Singapore. As Ralph Gakenheimer points out, ‘Cities

could build several busways in parallel corridors for the price of one metro’ (Gakenheimer 1994, p.

341). Curitiba in Brazil is the most celebrated example of this approach.





















    







 

    



                 









         

            

           

 













  









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THE URBAN FUTURE 21 – Chapter IV: Rising to the Urban Challenge: Governance and Policy

262





Year

Passengers Carried Per Day (thousands)

Extent of ITN by Route Type (kilometres)

Total

Conventiona

ITN

Express

Feeder

Interdistrict

1974

677

623

19.9

1992

1,028

398

630

80.0

266

166

ITN: Integrated Transportation Network. This plus the remnants of the conventional route system constitute the MTS: Mass

Transit System (Rabinovitch and Hoehn 1995, 17).



         















             

   







             





8.1.5 Solution Five: The Vexed Question of Costs and Subsidies

Curitiba brings us back to the vexed question of subsidy. For it shows that it is possible for a

developing city to operate a very high-quality mass transit system without subsidy, so long as it

provides effectively for those who depend on the system and also attracts car owners out of their

vehicles. And there is a strong general case that transit subsidies should be avoided, especially at

earlier stages of development where scarce government resources are better spent on other

programmes, such as education. (Hong Kong, which uses rising land values to finance major

investments, is perhaps a special exception; for here, unusually, the state has always owned and

leased all land.) If subsidies are employed at all, the important consideration is to target low-income

users, especially to cut the time and money costs of their journeys to work. The most effective way,

demonstrated in Curitiba, is almost certainly bus-based systems with provision for bus priority on the

highways, and even special busways which may be shared by high-occupancy (shared) cars.

But the Curitiba model, albeit outstanding, is not the only one. Lagos in Nigeria suffers from gross

inadequacies in public transport, overcrowded buses, poor road infrastructure environmental pollution

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THE URBAN FUTURE 21 – Chapter IV: Rising to the Urban Challenge: Governance and Policy

263

and absence of integrated traffic management measures to combat congestion. Yet the city has proved

adaptive and innovative with a stream of old imported minibuses and old cars used for

unconventional, deregulated and unregistered public services called kabu-kabu (Bolade, 1993, p. 7).

Such a system is considerably more anarchic, and almost certainly less efficient in the strict sense

than Curitiba’s more highly-regulated system; yet it does a good job in serving the city’s 7.7 million

people, and it could do even better if it functioned on a Curitiba-style infrastructure.

However one must be careful. In Santiago de Chile, deregulation led to a doubling of the city’s bus

fleet from 5,200 to 10,500 between 1979 and 1989, and to a considerable ageing of the fleet.

Congestion worsened, driving became worse and the condition of the bus fleet deteriorated. The

government responded by prohibiting access to the used vehicle fleet, banning the import of used

spare parts, and controlling emissions; it intends to introduce tolls for access to the most congested

streets (Figueroa,1993, p. 11).

This suggests that it is desirable to steer a careful course between top-down provision and

deregulation. The traditional approach – direct provision of infrastructure, and regulation of services –

has had three consequences: assets have not been maintained, infrastructure and vehicles having run

down; service has not responded to needs, for instance on developing urban peripheries; and costs

have been much higher than they need have been. In Argentina, privatization of the railways showed

that labour costs were more than double those needed to maintain a financially viable system; in the

UK average operating costs per vehicle-kilometre fell by 30-40 per cent after deregulation and

privatization (World Bank, 1996, pp. 33-35).

But there are at least three cases where it may be desirable to retain some regulation: where

duplication of supply would be wasteful or impractical, as with indivisible infrastructure; where lack

of regulation could produce duplication, excess capacity or dangerous practices; and where there is a

need for socially-necessary but unprofitable services. And within a competitive transport market, it is

also critical that charges for the use of infrastructure be set correctly charges for the use of road

infrastructure are the critical central element (World Bank, 1996, pp.37, 490).

The optimal package, though it will differ from city to city according to the level of economic

development and the previous pattern of physical development, will involve three key elements: first,

fairly sensitive charging for the use of road space by private drivers, probably coupled with special

priorities and dispensations for those prepared to share rides; second, reservation of dedicated

routeways or corridors for the use of designated categories of vehicle, including light or heavy rail,

buses, para-transit including taxis, high-occupancy vehicles, and bicycles (these last desirably

segregated from the others); third, zoning for selective higher-density development along these

corridors, especially interchange points, where subcentres of concentrated employment would be

allowed and even encouraged to develop. These prescriptions appear equally valid for cities of every

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THE URBAN FUTURE 21 – Chapter IV: Rising to the Urban Challenge: Governance and Policy

264

kind – hypergrowth, dynamic, mature –though their precise application will vary a great deal from one

city to another and from one kind of city to another.

In this regard, Curitiba (see box IV.32) and Singapore (see box IV.33) make an interesting contrast.

Both can be regarded as model best-practice cities, and have been widely noticed and admired

throughout the world. Both share some similar features, including dense public transport corridors

along which higher-density development is encouraged. But the two cities started differently and have

remained different. Curitiba is a typical sprawling Latin American metropolis, even though its land-

use policies have resulted in greater compaction; it has relied on high-quality bus transportation.

Singapore is much more compact because of its island site and lack of land; it took a bold decision to

build a high-capacity mass transit system and to encourage high-density development along it. Both

models are worthy of imitation. Cities worldwide will need to decide which is more appropriate in

their case – or whether some combination, or intermediate model, might work best for them.



       



             







             





 



          



             



          



          











            













       





VB.NET PDF: Use VB Code to Draw Text and Graphics on PDF Pages for

FontBrush.Solid_Color = Color.Blue 'set filled font color Using following example code, users can create multiple graphics shapes to any designed PDF page area

create fillable forms in pdf; create pdf fillable form

C# Image: C#.NET Code to Add Rectangle Annotation to Images &

code below will help developers create a self NET rectangle annotator control toolkit can not only powerful & profession imaging controls, PDF document, image

change font size in pdf fillable form; pdf fillable form

THE URBAN FUTURE 21 – Chapter IV: Rising to the Urban Challenge: Governance and Policy

265

          

  



  

             

           





          

             

               

             





   







              





          



       















              

         





     

          

          







            

     



           



    





               

           



            

       



VB.NET TIFF: Make Custom Annotations on TIFF Image File in VB.NET

the TIFF image and merge them into one image that can be output as a PDF or any Users are also able to create and edit your own annotation object, merge

add fillable fields to pdf; create a pdf form to fill out

THE URBAN FUTURE 21 – Chapter IV: Rising to the Urban Challenge: Governance and Policy

266

              





8.2 Bundling the Solutions

So the rapid growth in demand for travel, the increase in car ownership and the high external costs of

transport are very strong and fundamental worldwide trends. But they are leading us steadily away

from sustainability: this is the fundamental policy dilemma. To resolve this dilemma, within the time

frame of the next twenty-five years (to 2025), there are two clear parallel lines of action. They are

easily seen as alternatives, even incompatible alternatives. We argue that on the contrary, they are

complementary.

8.2.1 The Longer-Run Solution: Technology to the Rescue

In the longer term, we can be certain that the ecocar will become a reality, primarily for use in urban

areas. Although resources (mainly renewable and the recyclable) will still be needed to construct the

vehicle, it would be powered by hydrogen fuel cells. It will probably be available within ten years, but

– given current turnover levels – it will not have had a major impact on the total stock of vehicles for

a further ten to fifteen years. This means that the ecocar would only be in general use by the end of

our time frame (2025) in mature cities and a little later (because older cars may remain longer) in

dynamic and above all in hypergrowth cities. During this period, technologies to produce hydrogen

with solar energy will need to be improved.

A first set of policy actions must be to facilitate the research and development of the ecocar and to

give clear signals to the motor manufacturing industry to invest in the small city-based vehicle.

 To increase our research and development budgets on the ecocar and associated technologies;

 To develop the necessary supporting infrastructure so that it can be used when available;

 To provide tax incentives for companies to invest in the appropriate technology and to take it to

the production stage;

 To provide tax disincentives for purchasing large inefficient vehicles for city use;

 To phase out all forms of subsidy to the private car (e.g. company cars);

 At a later stage to develop a scrappage programme to encourage people to purchase the ecocar.

THE URBAN FUTURE 21 – Chapter IV: Rising to the Urban Challenge: Governance and Policy

267

The purpose of these actions will be to speed up the process of innovation, and to give clear signals to

industry and people that the ecocar is the replacement technology for the current car stock. There is

no real problem in promoting an efficient vehicle based on fuel cell technology as the industry would

be the main promoter of change, and as incentives would be given to encourage replacement of

inefficient vehicles. The main remaining issues are:

 The possible initial high cost of the ecocar, initially perhaps more than twice the cost of existing

cars, until the substantial development costs have been recouped;

 The role that the ecocar should play in cities in developing countries where the fuel cell

technology and the appropriate supporting technology may be less applicable to the great bulk of

personal movements;

 The lifespan of the vehicle – whether it should be built to last much longer than current vehicles –

this is a trade-off between costs, technology, taste and other factors;

 Development of the appropriate infrastructure for the ecocar (and other eco-vehicles) through

intermediate technologies (e.g. electric, methane, LPG and natural gas vehicles);

 Development of an environmentally-neutral system or systems allowing the energy sources, and

much of the associated technology (e.g. guidance systems and control systems) to be recycled;

 Resolving the interim problems of congestion and the allocation of scarce road space.

8.2.2 The Short-Run Interim Solution: Restraining the Growth of Demand

That last point needs emphasis: even if the ‘technological solution’ is promoted, there still remains the

historic problem of transport growth (congestion) and the ‘gap’ between now and the time when the

ecocar is in common use. To tackle the problems of congestion requires strong action now, so that the

almost certain growth in demand can be accommodated in our cities through the most efficient use of

the existing infrastructure. Most of the options are well known and have been outlined in detail

elsewhere (Banister, 1999).

The key assumption is that sustainable living must be based on urban areas, as high levels of

accessibility and proximity can only be maintained there. This means that people should be living in

settlements that are of a sufficient size (some experts suggest 20,000, others over 50,000) so that the

full range of facilities can be provided within walking, cycling or public transport distance (less than 5

kilometres). These settlements should be at a medium density (at least 40 persons per hectare), and

should have mixed land uses and high levels of accessibility to the public transport network (for inter-

urban travel). It also means that these areas have to provide a high-quality environment within which

THE URBAN FUTURE 21 – Chapter IV: Rising to the Urban Challenge: Governance and Policy

268

people wish to live. This includes access to open space, a safe and secure environment, peace and

quiet, a wide range of social and recreational opportunities, as well as the other benefits of urban

living. Most services and facilities can be provided locally, but the most difficult to provide is local

employment. Even here, in the timescale given, services and technology-based employment can be

dispersed to where people live.

These constraints concern the framework within which transport policy options can be placed. Most

of them require a strong planning system at the city and regional levels that will direct development to

achieve larger, higher-density, mixed-use and accessible cities. Although the planning system is not

immediate in its effect, in the medium term it is one of the most important determinants of travel

patterns. As a general rule, the shorter the journey, the greater the probability that it will be walk,

cycle or public transport based. The planning system should be seeking to ensure proximity between

where people live and the services, jobs and facilities to which they wish to gain access (see table

IV.3).

A second constraint is the role that technology (in its widest sense) will have on travel demand. We

have earlier reviewed the potential for substitution of travel through telecommuting. Likewise, huge

impacts could come from the growth of teleconferencing, teleshopping, telebusiness and other forms

of e-activities. There continues to be much debate about their effects (Salomon and Mokhtarian, 1997;

NERA, 1997). It is clear that the scale and the nature of change induced by technology will be

substantial and complex, with adaptations to existing patterns of activity. It will not affect all people

in the same way, but will provide greater choice and flexibility to many ‘computer literate’ people.

THE URBAN FUTURE 21 – Chapter IV: Rising to the Urban Challenge: Governance and Policy

269













       







































Source: Banister (1999), p. 46.

8.3 Alternative Strategies: ‘Radical’ and ‘Pragmatic’

Given these parameters, there remain broad policy long-term alternatives. The ‘radical’ alternative is

to work progressively to reduce the growth of car use and finally to diminish car use. Even here, the

intention is not to prohibit the use of the car; this would be both difficult to achieve and would be

seen as being against notions of freedom and choice. The intention is to design cities of such quality

and at a suitable scale that many people would not need to have a car and they would choose to live in

a car-free location. This solution would entail maintaining the key features of the ‘interim’ solution –

cities over 20,000 population (preferably over 50,000), with medium densities (over 40 persons per

hectare), with mixed use developments, and with preference given to developments in public transport

accessible corridors and near to highly public transport accessible interchanges – indefinitely, linking

them together to form agglomerations of polycentric cities, with clear hierarchies that would allow a

close proximity of everyday facilities and accessibility to higher-order activities.

Such an urban form could keep average trip lengths to below the thresholds required for maximum

use of the walk and cycle modes. It would also permit high levels of para-transit and public transport

priority so that the need to use the car would be minimized. Through the combination of clear

planning strategies, cities would be designed at the personal scale to allow both high-quality

THE URBAN FUTURE 21 – Chapter IV: Rising to the Urban Challenge: Governance and Policy

270

accessibility and a high-quality environment. In transport terms, this is the vision of the sustainable

city.

The logic of this argument is that the car would play only a limited role in the twenty-first-century

city. This would demand either a major change in the value system of individuals and firms, or an

ecological disaster directly related to the problem of the car – for instance, some kind of health

epidemic of a sufficient scale to change values and priorities. But even if such an event occurred, it

would also have to result in a fundamental reassessment of values.

The conclusion we draw is that this might happen in a demonstration or experimental city, which

decided to become the world’s first ‘car free city’. But we doubt that it would be acceptable very

generally. Realistically, it is hard to believe that the radical solution is achievable in the short term,

particularly because current lifestyles are so transport-dependent. Enormous amounts of capital are

tied up in cities, in local and national economies (especially in real estate), and in the motor industry

(not to mention private cars). Apart from the direct impacts on vehicle manufacturers and their

suppliers, the city would have to alter its structure so that efficient local movement could take place.

Massive declines in real estate and other fixed assets dependent on the use of car would be inevitable.

Given the enormous sunk investment in low-density suburban forms in much of the developed world,

the bulk of it less than fifty years old, the costs of moving towards a new structure would be

prohibitive save in the very long run. It might occur as and when there was a technology (the ecocar)

that could be seen as an alternative way of pursuing current lifestyles rather than a total and radical

replacement for them. But, short of this, the radical strategy carries very high risks, and may well be

deemed politically unacceptable.

The alternative ‘pragmatic’ strategy is to recognize that the car will still form an essential element of

the transport system, but to reduce or alter its impacts through new forms of pricing, restraint and

regulation. The underlying argument is that we must look for ways to maintain economic growth with

less transport (decoupling), and strong incentives (market and regulatory) should be given to

promoting efficient and clean transport by all modes. This strategy will provide a pathway allowing us

to move from the current situation to the sustainable city. It provides the means to reassess priorities,

it begins to revalue space in cities, and it gives some indication of the sustainable city. As such, it will

help to change value systems. In more detail, it combines top-down and bottom-up approaches,

derived from actual successful experience in best-practice cities like Curitiba and Singapore.



The taxation system should be changed so that taxes are based primarily on consumption,

rather than production (labour). A carbon tax in the transport sector would allow the price of petrol

and diesel to be substantially raised so that clear incentives would be given to users to drive

economically, to purchase fuel efficient vehicles, to switch modes, and to consider whether a journey

is essential or could be carried out locally or as part of a tour.

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