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(c) Human resource development
12.43. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional
organizations, should undertake nationwide major anti-desertification awareness/training campaigns
within countries affected through existing national mass media facilities, educational networks and
newly created or strengthened extension services. This should ensure people's access to knowledge of
desertification and drought and to national plans of action to combat desertification.
(d) Capacity-building
12.44. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional
organizations, should establish and maintain mechanisms to ensure coordination of sectoral
ministries and institutions, including local-level institutions and appropriate non-governmental
organizations, in integrating anti-desertification programmes into national development plans and
national environmental action plans.
E. Developing comprehensive drought preparedness and drought-relief schemes, including self-help
arrangements, for drought-prone areas and designing programmes to cope with environmental
refugees
Basis for action
12.45. Drought, in differing degrees of frequency and severity, is a recurring phenomenon throughout
much of the developing world, especially Africa. Apart from the human toll - an estimated 3 million
people died in the mid-1980s because of drought in sub-Saharan Africa - the economic costs of
drought-related disasters are also high in terms of lost production, misused inputs and diversion of
development resources.
12.46. Early-warning systems to forecast drought will make possible the implementation of drought-
preparedness schemes. Integrated packages at the farm and watershed level, such as alternative
cropping strategies, soil and water conservation and promotion of water harvesting techniques, could
enhance the capacity of land to cope with drought and provide basic necessities, thereby minimizing
the number of environmental refugees and the need for emergency drought relief. At the same time,
contingency arrangements for relief are needed for periods of acute scarcity.
Objectives
12.47. The objectives of this programme area are:
a. To develop national strategies for drought preparedness in both the short and long term,
aimed at reducing the vulnerability of production systems to drought;
b. To strengthen the flow of early-warning information to decision makers and land users to
enable nations to implement strategies for drought intervention;
c. To develop and integrate drought-relief schemes and means of coping with
environmental refugees into national and regional development planning.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.48. In drought-prone areas, Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
a. Design strategies to deal with national food deficiencies in periods of production
shortfall. These strategies should deal with issues of storage and stocks, imports, port
facilities, food storage, transport and distribution;
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b. Improve national and regional capacity for agrometeorology and contingency crop
planning. Agrometeorology links the frequency, content and regional coverage of
weather forecasts with the requirements of crop planning and agricultural extension;
c. Prepare rural projects for providing short-term rural employment to drought-affected
households. The loss of income and entitlement to food is a common source of distress in
times of drought. Rural works help to generate the income required to buy food for poor
households;
d. Establish contingency arrangements, where necessary, for food and fodder distribution
and water supply;
e. Establish budgetary mechanisms for providing, at short notice, resources for drought
relief;
f. Establish safety nets for the most vulnerable households.
(b) Data and information
12.49. Governments of affected countries, at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
a. Implement research on seasonal forecasts to improve contingency planning and relief
operations and allow preventive measures to be taken at the farm level, such as the
selection of appropriate varieties and farming practices, in times of drought;
b. Support applied research on ways of reducing water loss from soils, on ways of
increasing the water absorption capacities of soils and on water harvesting techniques in
drought-prone areas;
c. Strengthen national early-warning systems, with particular emphasis on the area of risk-
mapping, remote-sensing, agrometeorological modelling, integrated multidisciplinary
crop-forecasting techniques and computerized food supply/demand analysis.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.50. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional
organizations, should:
a. Establish a system of stand-by capacities in terms of foodstock, logistical support,
personnel and finance for a speedy international response to drought-related emergencies;
b. Support programmes of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) on
agrohydrology and agrometeorology, the Programme of the Regional Training Centre for
Agrometeorology and Operational Hydrology and their Applications (AGRHYMET),
drought-monitoring centres and the African Centre of Meteorological Applications for
Development (ACMAD), as well as the efforts of the Permanent Inter-State Committee
on Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) and the Intergovernmental Authority for
Drought and Development (IGADD);
c. Support FAO programmes and other programmes for the development of national early-
warning systems and food security assistance schemes;
d. Strengthen and expand the scope of existing regional programmes and the activities of
appropriate United Nations organs and organizations, such as the World Food
Programme (WFP), the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator
(UNDRO) and the United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office as well as of non-
governmental organizations, aimed at mitigating the effects of drought and emergencies.
41
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.51. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of
implementing the activities of this programme to be about $1.2 billion, including about $1.1 billion
from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.52. Governments at the appropriate level and drought-prone communities, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
a. Use traditional mechanisms to cope with hunger as a means of channelling relief and
development assistance;
b. Strengthen and develop national, regional and local interdisciplinary research and
training capabilities for drought-prevention strategies.
(c) Human resource development
12.53. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional
organizations, should:
a. Promote the training of decision makers and land users in the effective utilization of
information from early-warning systems;
b. Strengthen research and national training capabilities to assess the impact of drought and
to develop methodologies to forecast drought.
(d) Capacity-building
12.54. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional
organizations, should:
a. Improve and maintain mechanisms with adequate staff, equipment and finances for
monitoring drought parameters to take preventive measures at regional, national and local
levels;
b. Establish interministerial linkages and coordinating units for drought monitoring, impact
assessment and management of drought-relief schemes.
F. Encouraging and promoting popular participation and environmental education, focusing on
desertification control and management of the effects of drought
Basis for action
12.55. The experience to date on the successes and failures of programmes and projects points to the
need for popular support to sustain activities related to desertification and drought control. But it is
necessary to go beyond the theoretical ideal of popular participation and to focus on obtaining actual
active popular involvement, rooted in the concept of partnership. This implies the sharing of
responsibilities and the mutual involvement of all parties. In this context, this programme area should
be considered an essential supporting component of all desertification-control and drought-related
activities.
Objectives
40
12.56. The objectives of this programme area are:
a. To develop and increase public awareness and knowledge concerning desertification and
drought, including the integration of environmental education in the curriculum of
primary and secondary schools;
b. To establish and promote true partnership between government authorities, at both the
national and local levels, other executing agencies, non-governmental organizations and
land users stricken by drought and desertification, giving land users a responsible role in
the planning and execution processes in order to benefit fully from development projects;
c. To ensure that the partners understand one another's needs, objectives and points of view
by providing a variety of means such as training, public awareness and open dialogue;
d. To support local communities in their own efforts in combating desertification, and to
draw on the knowledge and experience of the populations concerned, ensuring the full
participation of women and indigenous populations.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.57. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional
organizations, should:
a. Adopt policies and establish administrative structures for more decentralized decision-
making and implementation;
b. Establish and utilize mechanisms for the consultation and involvement of land users and
for enhancing capability at the grass-roots level to identify and/or contribute to the
identification and planning of action;
c. Define specific programme/project objectives in cooperation with local communities;
design local management plans to include such measures of progress, thereby providing a
means of altering project design or changing management practices, as appropriate;
d. Introduce legislative, institutional/organizational and financial measures to secure user
involvement and access to land resources;
e. Establish and/or expand favourable conditions for the provision of services, such as credit
facilities and marketing outlets for rural populations;
f. Develop training programmes to increase the level of education and participation of
people, particularly women and indigenous groups, through, inter alia, literacy and the
development of technical skills;
g. Create rural banking systems to facilitate access to credit for rural populations,
particularly women and indigenous groups, and to promote rural savings;
h. Adopt appropriate policies to stimulate private and public investment.
(b) Data and information
12.58. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional
organizations, should:
a. Review, develop and disseminate gender-disaggregated information, skills and know-
how at all levels on ways of organizing and promoting popular participation;
40
b. Accelerate the development of technological know-how, focusing on appropriate and
intermediate technology;
c. Disseminate knowledge about applied research results on soil and water issues,
appropriate species, agricultural techniques and technological know-how.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.59. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and
regional organizations, should:
a. Develop programmes of support to regional organizations such as CILSS, IGADD,
SADCC and the Arab Maghreb Union and other intergovernmental organizations in
Africa and other parts of the world, to strengthen outreach programmes and increase the
participation of non-governmental organizations together with rural populations;
b. Develop mechanisms for facilitating cooperation in technology and promote such
cooperation as an element of all external assistance and activities related to technical
assistance projects in the public or private sector;
c. Promote collaboration among different actors in environment and development
programmes;
d. Encourage the emergence of representative organizational structures to foster and sustain
interorganizational cooperation.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.60. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of
implementing the activities of this programme to be about $1.0 billion, including about $500 million
from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.61. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and
regional organizations, should promote the development of indigenous know-how and technology
transfer.
(c) Human resource development
12.62. Governments, at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and
regional organizations, should:
a. Support and/or strengthen institutions involved in public education, including the local media,
schools and community groups;
b. Increase the level of public education.
(d) Capacity-building
12.63. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and
regional organizations, should promote members of local rural organizations and train and appoint
more extension officers working at the local level.
41
Agenda 21 – Chapter 13
MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS: SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN
DEVELOPMENT
13.1. Mountains are an important source of water, energy and biological diversity. Furthermore, they are a
source of such key resources as minerals, forest products and agricultural products and of recreation.
As a major ecosystem representing the complex and interrelated ecology of our planet, mountain
environments are essential to the survival of the global ecosystem. Mountain ecosystems are,
however, rapidly changing. They are susceptible to accelerated soil erosion, landslides and rapid loss
of habitat and genetic diversity. On the human side, there is widespread poverty among mountain
inhabitants and loss of indigenous knowledge. As a result, most global mountain areas are
experiencing environmental degradation. Hence, the proper management of mountain resources and
socio-economic development of the people deserves immediate action.
13.2. About 10 per cent of the world's population depends on mountain resources. A much larger
percentage draws on other mountain resources, including and especially water. Mountains are a
storehouse of biological diversity and endangered species.
13.3. Two programme areas are included in this chapter to further elaborate the problem of fragile
ecosystems with regard to all mountains of the world. These are:
a. Generating and strengthening knowledge about the ecology and sustainable development
of mountain ecosystems;
b. Promoting integrated watershed development and alternative livelihood opportunities.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Generating and strengthening knowledge about the ecology and sustainable development of
mountain ecosystems
Basis for action
13.4. Mountains are highly vulnerable to human and natural ecological imbalance. Mountains are the areas
most sensitive to all climatic changes in the atmosphere. Specific information on ecology, natural
resource potential and socio-economic activities is essential. Mountain and hillside areas hold a rich
variety of ecological systems. Because of their vertical dimensions, mountains create gradients of
temperature, precipitation and insolation. A given mountain slope may include several climatic
systems - such as tropical, subtropical, temperate and alpine - each of which represents a microcosm
of a larger habitat diversity. There is, however, a lack of knowledge of mountain ecosystems. The
creation of a global mountain database is therefore vital for launching programmes that contribute to
the sustainable development of mountain ecosystems.
Objectives
13.5. The objectives of this programme area are:
a. To undertake a survey of the different forms of soils, forest, water use, crop, plant and
animal resources of mountain ecosystems, taking into account the work of existing
international and regional organizations;
b. To maintain and generate database and information systems to facilitate the integrated
management and environmental assessment of mountain ecosystems, taking into account
the work of existing international and regional organizations;
42
c. To improve and build the existing land/water ecological knowledge base regarding
technologies and agricultural and conservation practices in the mountain regions of the
world, with the participation of local communities;
d. To create and strengthen the communications network and information clearing-house for
existing organizations concerned with mountain issues;
e. To improve coordination of regional efforts to protect fragile mountain ecosystems
through the consideration of appropriate mechanisms, including regional legal and other
instruments;
f. To generate information to establish databases and information systems to facilitate an
evaluation of environmental risks and natural disasters in mountain ecosystems.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
13.6. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional
organizations, should:
a. Strengthen existing institutions or establish new ones at local, national and regional levels
to generate a multidisciplinary land/water ecological knowledge base on mountain
ecosystems;
b. Promote national policies that would provide incentives to local people for the use and
transfer of environment-friendly technologies and farming and conservation practices;
c. Build up the knowledge base and understanding by creating mechanisms for cooperation
and information exchange among national and regional institutions working on fragile
ecosystems;
d. Encourage policies that would provide incentives to farmers and local people to
undertake conservation and regenerative measures;
e. Diversify mountain economies, inter alia, by creating and/or strengthening tourism, in
accordance with integrated management of mountain areas;
f. Integrate all forest, rangeland and wildlife activities in such a way that specific mountain
ecosystems are maintained;
g. Establish appropriate natural reserves in representative species-rich sites and areas.
(b) Data and information
13.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional
organizations, should:
a. Maintain and establish meteorological, hydrological and physical monitoring analysis and
capabilities that would encompass the climatic diversity as well as water distribution of
various mountain regions of the world;
b. Build an inventory of different forms of soils, forests, water use, and crop, plant and
animal genetic resources, giving priority to those under threat of extinction. Genetic
resources should be protected in situ by maintaining and establishing protected areas and
improving traditional farming and animal husbandry activities and establishing
programmes for evaluating the potential value of the resources;
c. Identify hazardous areas that are most vulnerable to erosion, floods, landslides,
earthquakes, snow avalanches and other natural hazards;
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