41
structures for monitoring, control and surveillance, as well as the research capacity for assessment of
marine living resource populations.
17.68. Special support, including cooperation among States, will be needed to enhance the capacities of
developing countries in the areas of data and information, scientific and technological means, and
human resource development in order to participate effectively in the conservation and sustainable
utilization of high seas marine living resources.
D. Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources under national jurisdiction
Basis for action
17.69. Marine fisheries yield 80 to 90 million tons of fish and shellfish per year, 95 per cent of which is
taken from waters under national jurisdiction. Yields have increased nearly fivefold over the past four
decades. The provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on marine living
resources of the exclusive economic zone and other areas under national jurisdiction set forth rights
and obligations of States with respect to conservation and utilization of those resources.
17.70. Marine living resources provide an important source of protein in many countries and their use is
often of major importance to local communities and indigenous people. Such resources provide food
and livelihoods to millions of people and, if sustainably utilized, offer increased potential to meet
nutritional and social needs, particularly in developing countries. To realize this potential requires
improved knowledge and identification of marine living resource stocks, particularly of underutilized
and unutilized stocks and species, use of new technologies, better handling and processing facilities
to avoid wastage, and improved quality and training of skilled personnel to manage and conserve
effectively the marine living resources of the exclusive economic zone and other areas under national
jurisdiction. Emphasis should also be on multi-species management and other approaches that take
into account the relationships among species.
17.71. Fisheries in many areas under national jurisdiction face mounting problems, including local
overfishing, unauthorized incursions by foreign fleets, ecosystem degradation, overcapitalization and
excessive fleet sizes, underevaluation of catch, insufficiently selective gear, unreliable databases, and
increasing competition between artisanal and large-scale fishing, and between fishing and other types
of activities.
17.72. Problems extend beyond fisheries. Coral reefs and other marine and coastal habitats, such as
mangroves and estuaries, are among the most highly diverse, integrated and productive of the Earth's
ecosystems. They often serve important ecological functions, provide coastal protection, and are
critical resources for food, energy, tourism and economic development. In many parts of the world,
such marine and coastal systems are under stress or are threatened from a variety of sources, both
human and natural.
Objectives
17.73. Coastal States, particularly developing countries and States whose economies are overwhelmingly
dependent on the exploitation of the marine living resources of their exclusive economic zones,
should obtain the full social and economic benefits from sustainable utilization of marine living
resources within their exclusive economic zones and other areas under national jurisdiction.
17.74. States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable use of marine living resources under
national jurisdiction. To this end, it is necessary to:
41
a. Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources to meet human nutritional
needs, as well as social, economic and development goals;
b. Take into account traditional knowledge and interests of local communities, small-scale
artisanal fisheries and indigenous people in development and management programmes;
c. Maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels that can produce the
maximum sustainable yield as qualified by relevant environmental and economic factors,
taking into consideration relationships among species;
d. Promote the development and use of selective fishing gear and practices that minimize
waste in the catch of target species and minimize by-catch of non-target species;
e. Protect and restore endangered marine species;
f. Preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, as well as habitats and other ecologically sensitive
areas.
17.75. Nothing in paragraph 17.74 above restricts the right of a coastal State or the competence of an
international organization, as appropriate, to prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine
mammals more strictly than provided for in that paragraph. States shall cooperate with a view to the
conservation of marine mammals and in the case of cetaceans shall in particular work through the
appropriate international organizations for their conservation, management and study.
17.76. The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above objectives is dependent upon their
capabilities, including the financial, scientific and technological means at their disposal. Adequate
financial, scientific and technological cooperation should be provided to support action by them to
implement these objectives.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
17.77. States should ensure that marine living resources of the exclusive economic zone and other areas
under national jurisdiction are conserved and managed in accordance with the provisions of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
17.78. States, in implementing the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,
should address the issues of straddling stocks and highly migratory species, and, taking fully into
account the objective set out in paragraph 17.73, access to the surplus of allowable catches.
17.79. Coastal States, individually or through bilateral and/or multilateral cooperation and with the
support, as appropriate of international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should
inter alia:
a. Assess the potential of marine living resources, including underutilized or unutilized
stocks and species, by developing inventories, where necessary, for their conservation
and sustainable use;
b. Implement strategies for the sustainable use of marine living resources, taking into
account the special needs and interests of small-scale artisanal fisheries, local
communities and indigenous people to meet human nutritional and other development
needs;
c. Implement, in particular in developing countries, mechanisms to develop mariculture,
aquaculture and small-scale, deep-sea and oceanic fisheries within areas under national
41
jurisdiction where assessments show that marine living resources are potentially
available;
d. Strengthen their legal and regulatory frameworks, where appropriate, including
management, enforcement and surveillance capabilities, to regulate activities related to
the above strategies;
e. Take measures to increase the availability of marine living resources as human food by
reducing wastage, post-harvest losses and discards, and improving techniques of
processing, distribution and transportation;
f. Develop and promote the use of environmentally sound technology under criteria
compatible with the sustainable use of marine living resources, including assessment of
the environmental impact of major new fishery practices;
g. Enhance the productivity and utilization of their marine living resources for food and
income.
17.80. Coastal States should explore the scope for expanding recreational and tourist activities based on
marine living resources, including those for providing alternative sources of income. Such activities
should be compatible with conservation and sustainable development policies and plans.
17.81. Coastal States should support the sustainability of small-scale artisanal fisheries. To this end, they
should, as appropriate:
a. Integrate small-scale artisanal fisheries development in marine and coastal planning,
taking into account the interests and, where appropriate, encouraging representation of
fishermen, small-scale fisherworkers, women, local communities and indigenous people;
b. Recognize the rights of small-scale fishworkers and the special situation of indigenous
people and local communities, including their rights to utilization and protection of their
habitats on a sustainable basis;
c. Develop systems for the acquisition and recording of traditional knowledge concerning
marine living resources and environment and promote the incorporation of such
knowledge into management systems.
17.82. Coastal States should ensure that, in the negotiation and implementation of international
agreements on the development or conservation of marine living resources, the interests of local
communities and indigenous people are taken into account, in particular their right to subsistence.
17.83. Coastal States, with the support, as appropriate, of international organizations should conduct
analyses of the potential for aquaculture in marine and coastal areas under national jurisdiction and
apply appropriate safeguards as to the introduction of new species.
17.84. States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other comparable destructive fishing practices.
17.85. States should identify marine ecosystems exhibiting high levels of biodiversity and productivity
and other critical habitat areas and should provide necessary limitations on use in these areas,
through, inter alia, designation of protected areas. Priority should be accorded, as appropriate, to:
a. Coral reef ecosystems;
b. Estuaries;
c. Temperate and tropical wetlands, including mangroves;
d. Seagrass beds;
42
e. Other spawning and nursery areas.
(b) Data and information
17.86. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and with the support, as
appropriate, of international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should:
a. Promote enhanced collection and exchange of data necessary for the conservation and
sustainable use of the marine living resources under national jurisdiction;
b. Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information necessary for fisheries
assessment;
c. Develop and share analytical and predictive tools, such as stock assessment and
bioeconomic models;
d. Establish or expand appropriate monitoring and assessment programmes;
e. Complete or update marine biodiversity, marine living resource and critical habitat
profiles of exclusive economic zones and other areas under national jurisdiction, taking
account of changes in the environment brought about by natural causes and human
activities.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.87. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, and with the support of relevant United
Nations and other international organizations, should cooperate to:
a. Develop financial and technical cooperation to enhance the capacities of developing
countries in small-scale and oceanic fisheries, as well as in coastal aquaculture and
mariculture;
b. Promote the contribution of marine living resources to eliminate malnutrition and to
achieve food self-sufficiency in developing countries, inter alia, by minimizing post-
harvest losses and managing stocks for guaranteed sustainable yields;
c. Develop agreed criteria for the use of selective fishing gear and practices to minimize
waste in the catch of target species and minimize by-catch of non-target species;
d. Promote seafood quality, including through national quality assurance systems for
seafood, in order to promote access to markets, improve consumer confidence and
maximize economic returns.
17.88. States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate coordination and cooperation in enclosed
and semi-enclosed seas and between subregional, regional and global intergovernmental fisheries
bodies.
17.89. States recognize:
a. The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for the conservation and
management of whale stocks and the regulation of whaling pursuant to the 1946
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling;
b. The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific Committee in carrying out
studies of large whales in particular, as well as of other cetaceans;
c. The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and North Sea under the Bonn
Convention, in the conservation, management and study of cetaceans and other marine
mammals.
41
17.90. States should cooperate for the conservation, management and study of cetaceans.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
17.91. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of
implementing the activities of this programme to be about $6 billion, including about $60 million
from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs will depend
upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
17.92. States, with the support of relevant intergovernmental organizations, as appropriate, should:
a. Provide for the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to develop fisheries,
aquaculture and mariculture, particularly to developing countries;
b. Accord special attention to mechanisms for transferring resource information and
improved fishing and aquaculture technologies to fishing communities at the local level;
c. Promote the study, scientific assessment and use of appropriate traditional management
systems;
d. Consider observing, as appropriate, the FAO/ICES Code of Practice for Consideration of
Transfer and Introduction of Marine and Freshwater Organisms;
e. Promote scientific research on marine areas of particular importance for marine living
resources, such as areas of high diversity, endemism and productivity and migratory
stopover points.
(c) Human resource development
17.93. States individually, or through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and with the support of
relevant international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should
encourage and provide support for developing countries, inter alia, to:
a. Expand multidisciplinary education, training and research on marine living resources,
particularly in the social and economic sciences;
b. Create training opportunities at national and regional levels to support artisanal
(including subsistence) fisheries, to develop small-scale use of marine living resources
and to encourage equitable participation of local communities, small-scale fish workers,
women and indigenous people;
c. Introduce topics relating to the importance of marine living resources in educational
curricula at all levels.
(d) Capacity-building
17.94. Coastal States, with the support of relevant subregional, regional and global agencies, where
appropriate, should:
a. Develop research capacities for assessment of marine living resource populations and
monitoring;
b. Provide support to local fishing communities, in particular those that rely on fishing for
subsistence, indigenous people and women, including, as appropriate, the technical and
43
financial assistance to organize, maintain, exchange and improve traditional knowledge
of marine living resources and fishing techniques, and upgrade knowledge on marine
ecosystems;
c. Establish sustainable aquaculture development strategies, including environmental
management in support of rural fish-farming communities;
d. Develop and strengthen, where the need may arise, institutions capable of implementing
the objectives and activities related to the conservation and management of marine living
resources.
17.95. Special support, including cooperation among States, will be needed to enhance the capacities of
developing countries in the areas of data and information, scientific and technological means and
human resource development in order to enable them to participate effectively in the conservation
and sustainable use of marine living resources under national jurisdiction.
E. Addressing critical uncertainties for the management of the marine environment and climate
change
Basis for action
17.96. The marine environment is vulnerable and sensitive to climate and atmospheric changes. Rational
use and development of coastal areas, all seas and marine resources, as well as conservation of the
marine environment, requires the ability to determine the present state of these systems and to predict
future conditions. The high degree of uncertainty in present information inhibits effective
management and limits the ability to make predictions and assess environmental change. Systematic
collection of data on marine environmental parameters will be needed to apply integrated
management approaches and to predict effects of global climate change and of atmospheric
phenomena, such as ozone depletion, on living marine resources and the marine environment. In
order to determine the role of the oceans and all seas in driving global systems and to predict natural
and human-induced changes in marine and coastal environments, the mechanisms to collect,
synthesize and disseminate information from research and systematic observation activities need to
be restructured and reinforced considerably.
17.97. There are many uncertainties about climate change and particularly about sealevel rise. Small
increases in sealevel have the potential of causing significant damage to small islands and low-lying
coasts. Response strategies should be based on sound data. A long-term cooperative research
commitment is needed to provide the data required for global climate models and to reduce
uncertainty. Meanwhile, precautionary measures should be undertaken to diminish the risks and
effects, particularly on small islands and on low-lying and coastal areas of the world.
17.98. Increased ultraviolet radiation derived from ozone depletion has been reported in some areas of
the world. An assessment of its effects in the marine environment is needed to reduce uncertainty and
to provide a basis for action.
Objectives
17.99. States, in accordance with provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on
marine scientific research, commit themselves to improve the understanding of the marine
environment and its role on global processes. To this end, it is necessary to:
a. Promote scientific research on and systematic observation of the marine environment
within the limits of national jurisdiction and high seas, including interactions with
atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone depletion;
42
b. Promote exchange of data and information resulting from scientific research and
systematic observation and from traditional ecological knowledge and ensure its
availability to policy makers and the public at the national level;
c. Cooperate with a view to the development of standard inter-calibrated procedures,
measuring techniques, data storage and management capabilities for scientific research
on and systematic observation of the marine environment.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
17.100. States should consider, inter alia:
a. Coordinating national and regional observation programmes for coastal and near-shore
phenomena related to climate change and for research parameters essential for marine
and coastal management in all regions;
b. Providing improved forecasts of marine conditions for the safety of inhabitants of coastal
areas and for the efficiency of maritime operations;
c. Cooperating with a view to adopting special measures to cope with and adapt to potential
climate change and sealevel rise, including the development of globally accepted
methodologies for coastal vulnerability assessment, modelling and response strategies
particularly for priority areas, such as small islands and low-lying and critical coastal
areas;
d. Identifying ongoing and planned programmes of systematic observation of the marine
environment, with a view to integrating activities and establishing priorities to address
critical uncertainties for oceans and all seas;
e. Initiating a programme of research to determine the marine biological effects of increased
levels of ultraviolet rays due to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and to
evaluate the possible effects.
17.101. Recognizing the important role that oceans and all seas play in attenuating potential climate
change, IOC and other relevant competent United Nations bodies, with the support of countries
having the resources and expertise, should carry out analysis, assessments and systematic observation
of the role of oceans as a carbon sink.
(b) Data and information
17.102. States should consider, inter alia:
a. Increasing international cooperation particularly with a view to strengthening national
scientific and technological capabilities for analysing, assessing and predicting global
climate and environmental change;
b. Supporting the role of the IOC in cooperation with WMO, UNEP and other international
organizations in the collection, analysis and distribution of data and information from the
oceans and all seas, including as appropriate, through the Global Ocean Observing
System, giving special attention to the need for IOC to develop fully the strategy for
providing training and technical assistance for developing countries through its Training,
Education and Mutual Assistance (TEMA) programme;
c. Creating national multisectoral information bases, covering the results of research and
systematic observation programmes;
43
d. Linking these databases to existing data and information services and mechanisms, such
as World Weather Watch and Earthwatch;
e. Cooperating with a view to the exchange of data and information and its storage and
archiving through the world and regional data centres;
f. Cooperating to ensure full participation of developing countries, in particular, in any
international scheme under the organs and organizations of the United Nations system for
the collection, analysis and use of data and information.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.103. States should consider bilaterally and multilaterally and in cooperation with international
organizations, whether subregional, regional, interregional or global, where appropriate:
a. Providing technical cooperation in developing the capacity of coastal and island States
for marine research and systematic observation and for using its results;
b. Strengthening existing national institutions and creating, where necessary, international
analysis and prediction mechanisms in order to prepare and exchange regional and global
oceanographic analyses and forecasts and to provide facilities for international research
and training at national, subregional and regional levels, where applicable.
17.104. In recognition of the value of Antarctica as an area for the conduct of scientific research, in
particular research essential to understanding the global environment, States carrying out such
research activities in Antarctica should, as provided for in Article III of the Antarctic Treaty, continue
to:
a. Ensure that data and information resulting from such research are freely available to the
international community;
b. Enhance access of the international scientific community and specialized agencies of the
United Nations to such data and information, including the encouragement of periodic
seminars and symposia.
17.105. States should strengthen high-level inter-agency, subregional, regional and global coordination, as
appropriate, and review mechanisms to develop and integrate systematic observation networks. This
would include:
a. Review of existing regional and global databases;
b. Mechanisms to develop comparable and compatible techniques, validate methodologies
and measurements, organize regular scientific reviews, develop options for corrective
measures, agree on formats for presentation and storage, and communicate the
information gathered to potential users;
c. Systematic observation of coastal habitats and sealevel changes, inventories of marine
pollution sources and reviews of fisheries statistics;
d. Organization of periodic assessments of ocean and all seas and coastal area status and
trends.
17.106. International cooperation, through relevant organizations within the United Nations system,
should support countries to develop and integrate regional systematic long-term observation
programmes, when applicable, into the Regional Seas Programmes in a coordinated fashion to
implement, where appropriate, subregional, regional and global observing systems based on the
principle of exchange of data. One aim should be the predicting of the effects of climate-related
emergencies on existing coastal physical and socio-economic infrastructure.
38
17.107. Based on the results of research on the effects of the additional ultraviolet radiation reaching the
Earth's surface, in the fields of human health, agriculture and marine environment, States and
international organizations should consider taking appropriate remedial measures.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
17.108. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of
implementing the activities of this programme to be about $750 million, including about $480 million
from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
17.109. Developed countries should provide the financing for the further development and implementation
of the Global Ocean Observing System.
(b) Scientific and technological means
17.110. To address critical uncertainties through systematic coastal and marine observations and research,
coastal States should cooperate in the development of procedures that allow for comparable analysis
and soundness of data. They should also cooperate on a subregional and regional basis, through
existing programmes where applicable, share infrastructure and expensive and sophisticated
equipment, develop quality assurance procedures and develop human resources jointly. Special
attention should be given to transfer of scientific and technological knowledge and means to support
States, particularly developing countries, in the development of endogenous capabilities.
17.111. International organizations should support, when requested, coastal countries in implementing
research projects on the effects of additional ultraviolet radiation.
(c) Human resource development
17.112. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and with the support, as
appropriate, of international organizations whether subregional, regional or global, should develop
and implement comprehensive programmes, particularly in developing countries, for a broad and
coherent approach to meeting their core human resource needs in the marine sciences.
(d) Capacity-building
17.113. States should strengthen or establish as necessary, national scientific and technological
oceanographic commissions or equivalent bodies to develop, support and coordinate marine science
activities and work closely with international organizations.
17.114. States should use existing subregional and regional mechanisms, where applicable, to develop
knowledge of the marine environment, exchange information, organize systematic observations and
assessments, and make the most effective use of scientists, facilities and equipment. They should also
cooperate in the promotion of endogenous research capabilities in developing countries.
F. Strengthening international, including regional, cooperation and coordination
Basis for action
Documents you may be interested
Documents you may be interested
