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include black locust, mesquite, alder, and, in low-frost climates, acacia, algoroba, tagasaste, and carob.

Since much of the forest garden lies in landscape zones 1 and 2, timber trees aren’t appropriate—tree felling in close quarters would be too

destructive. But pruning and storm damage will generate firewood and small wood for crafts.

The canopy trees will define the major patterns of the forest garden, so they must be chosen carefully. Plant them with careful regard to their

mature size so enough light will fall between them to support other plants.

2. The Low-Tree Layer. Here are many of the same fruits and nuts as in the canopy, but on dwarf and semidwarf rootstocks to keep them low growing.

Plus, we can plant naturally small trees such as apricot, peach, nectarine, almond, medlar, and mulberry. Here also are shade-tolerant fruit trees such

as persimmon and pawpaw. In a smaller forest garden, these small trees may serve as the canopy. They can easily be pruned into an open form,

which will allow light to reach the other species beneath them.

Other low-growing trees include flowering species, such as dogwood and mountain ash, and some nitrogen fixers, including golden-chain tree,

silk tree, and mountain mahogany. Both large and small nitrogen-fixing trees grow quickly and can be pruned heavily to generate plenty of mulch and

compost.

3. The Shrub Layer. This tier includes flowering, fruiting, wildlife-attracting, and other useful shrubs. A small sampling: blueberry, rose, hazelnut, butterfly

bush, bamboo, serviceberry, the nitrogen-fixing Elaeagnus species and Siberian pea shrub, and dozens of others. The broad palette of available

shrubs allows the gardener’s inclinations to surface, as shrubs can be chosen to emphasize food, crafts, ornamentals, birds, insects, native plants,

exotics, or just raw biodiversity.

Shrubs come in all sizes, from dwarf blueberries to nearly tree-sized hazelnuts, and thus can be plugged into edges, openings, and niches of

many forms. Shade-tolerant varieties can lurk beneath the trees, sun-loving types in the sunny spaces between.

4. The Herb Layer. Here herb is used in the broad botanical sense to mean nonwoody vegetation: vegetables, flowers, culinary herbs, and cover

crops, as well as mulch producers and other soil-building plants. Emphasis is on perennials, but we won’t rule out choice annuals and self-seeding

species. Again, shade-lovers can peek out from beneath taller plants, while sun-worshiping species need the open spaces. At the edges, a forest

garden can also hold more traditional garden beds of plants dependent on full sun.

5. The Ground-Cover Layer. These are low, ground-hugging plants—preferably varieties that offer food or habitat—that snuggle into edges and the

spaces between shrubs and herbs. Sample species include strawberries, nasturtium, clover, creeping thyme, ajuga, and the many prostrate

varieties of flowers such as phlox and verbena. They play a critical role in weed prevention, occupying ground that would otherwise succumb to

invaders.

6. The Vine Layer. This layer is for climbing plants that will twine up trunks and branches, filling the unused regions of the all-important third dimension

with food and habitat. Here are food plants, such as kiwifruit, grapes, hops, passionflower, and vining berries; and those for wildlife, such as

honeysuckle and trumpet-flower. These can include climbing annuals such as squash, cucumbers, and melons. Some of the perennial vines can be

invasive or strangling; hence, they should be used sparingly and cautiously.

7. The Root Layer. The soil gives us yet another layer for the forest garden; the third dimension goes both up and down. Most of the plants for the root

layer should be shallow rooted, such as garlic and onions, or easy-to-dig types such as potatoes and Jerusalem artichokes. Deep-rooted varieties

such

carrots

don’t

work

well

because

the

digging

they

require

will

disturb

other

plants

sprinkle

few

seeds

daikon

(Asian

radish)

open

bugs and the fat roots add humus as they rot.

spots because the long roots can often be pulled with one mighty tug rather than dug; and, if I dont harvest them, the blossoms attract beneficial

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Designing the Forest Garden

The forest garden design process largely follows the sequence laid out in Chapter 3: observation, visioning, planning, development, and implementation.

As well, extra focus on a few points will be helpful:

• In an exposed site, wind barriers (fences and hedges) will greatly speed the establishment of the other plants.

• Trees and woody plants should go in first because these take the longest to mature and define the shape of the garden. Remember to design for the

full mature size of trees—it’s easy to place spindly seedlings too close together, leading to overcrowding and dense shade when they mature. Leave

room for sunlight to penetrate between full-grown trees, rather than creating a closed tall-tree layer. The more northerly the garden, the weaker the

sun will be, so more space will be needed between trees.

• Early on, include plenty of nitrogen-fixing and other soil-building plants. The dense plantings of the forest garden will demand lots of nutrients during

their youth, so the soil must be in great shape. The fertile, organic-rich soil built by nutrient-accumulating plants will accelerate growth and speed

succession along.

• Buying the plants for a forest garden all at once can get expensive, so those with a limited budget should consider setting aside a small area as a

nursery for seed-starting, rooting cuttings, and general plant propagation. It’s best to place the nursery in zone 1, so you can keep close watch on the

tender youngsters. Here, you can start perennials for the herb, root, and ground-cover layers from seed en masse; propagate cuttings for trees,

shrubs, and herbs; divide established plants to yield numerous progeny; and create a swelling population of plants to colonize the new garden. You

can nurture these for a year or two and then move them to their permanent homes. Those with the expertise can graft tree varieties, too. A nursery is

invaluable for furnishing huge number of plants very cheaply.

• The open spaces between trees and shrubs can at first be filled with annual vegetables, flowers, nitrogen-fixing cover crops such as clover, and

nursery stock. As the upper layers grow and the nursery plants become ready to transplant, these beds will shrink.

For a design example, let’s look at the typical case of a homeowner wanting to take out a lawn and install a more ecologically sound forest garden.

We’ll select a U-shaped design, which provides a private, warm, and sheltered space in the center (see the illustration on page 210). Ideally the U would

open toward the south for maximum sunshine.

This design will emphasize food—three dimensions of fruit, berries, vegetables, and herbs, with a minor emphasis on flowers. We want plenty of

vegetables and flowers in the lower layers for the first few years, but we know that as time goes by, the upper layers will be the principal providers. With

these goals in mind, we can begin the design.

A freshly planted evolving ecological garden, about 40 feet by 50 feet. A nursery and propagation bed lies conveniently close to the house for regular

care. Temporary, well-composted beds line the lawn in Zone 1 for fast, early food and flower production. Young trees and shrubs—as many as can be

afforded—begin to fill the more distant Zones 2 and 3. Zone 2 is deeply sheet-mulched to quickly build soil, while the less-urgently needed Zone 3 is

cover-cropped for long-term soil restoration.

First, map the area for the new garden and sketch in any existing foliage that will be saved. Then draw in the new plantings. The sunny, open area in the

center of the U can be kept as lawn or converted to flower and vegetable beds. Many parents opt to preserve an expanse of lawn for children to play in,

but once the forest fills in, I guarantee that the kids will abandon the open grass for the more enchanting shrubbery, a perfect place for hideaways and

forts. The lawn can be kept just big enough for a little sunbathing.

For a windbreak and privacy screen, we’ll create an edge of hedge and wall plants: espaliered or cordoned fruit trees, berry bushes, shrub willows,

roses, dogwoods, elderberries, and useful native shrubs.

Then sketch in the tree layers. Tall trees are best placed to the north to reduce the shade cast on other plantings, but wide spacing will also allow ample

sunlight to fall between trees. The spacing reflects the mature size of the tree. Since this is a fair-sized suburban property, we have room for some full-

sized trees: apple, pear, walnut, plum, and cherry. We want some nitrogen fixers, so we’ll add black locust and golden-chain tree. In the low-tree layer are

dwarf and semidwarf fruit trees plus, under the taller trees, naturally small persimmons, pawpaws, and mulberries. In this example, no tall trees are close

to the house, which will allow ample light for the zone 1 understory.

The shrub and lower layers require some thought because we want to have constant food production while the upper layers mature. To give the owners

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lots of zone 1 and 2 vegetables and herbs until the trees begin to bear, we’ll design some keyhole beds near the house: temporary ones under the low

trees and permanent beds in the open center. One of the short-term beds is reserved for plant propagation. This arrangement means that the low trees

near the house won’t be underplanted with perennials as densely—yet—as those farther away.

After five to ten years, the garden has filled in. Since the perennial shrubs and trees are now producing abundantly, the temporary keyhole beds have

shrunk to narrow, edge beds. A ground cover of edible, flowering, and insectary herbs and shrubs fills in the gaps between and below major trees.

Three factors interact to mold the design of the more distant parts of this forest garden. One is the zone effect: The farther-off places—zones 2 and 3

—won’t be visited as often as the nearer zones, so they can’t demand as much care. A second factor is that of time: The young plantings will start small

and need one or more years to mature. And the third is budget: Many gardeners won’t want to spend the large sum necessary to plant the entire yard

densely all at once, and this far-off zone is the best place to plant sparsely until more stock is ready. So we need to develop a planting strategy that

reflects these constraints. This less-maintained zone will sport only a few small specimens at first, thus it is prone to weed invasion and neglect while the

woody plants mature and the low layers fill in.

My recommendation is this: In zone 2, mulch heavily between the young trees and shrubs and plant the herb, root, and ground-cover layers as time,

nursery stock, and money become available. Renew the mulch once or twice a year to build the soil quickly and smother weeds. To try to cultivate and

plant this large area would probably be biting off too large a chunk at once. Remember, the wisest strategy is to get zone 1 established first and then

expand outward. With the above approach, the shrubs, trees, and soil of zone 2 will be ready when zone 1 is up and running.

The farthest reaches of this yard elicit yet another approach. It’s doubtful we can conjure up enough mulch to cover the entire forest garden, and since

the full-sized trees and large shrubs of zone 3 will take longest to mature, soil-building isn’t as urgent a task. Once the trees and major shrubs are in place

in this more distant zone, I’d advise planting a soil-building, habitat-providing cover crop mix. This will keep weeds at bay and boost fertility until we’re

ready to plant the lower layers. One choice for a cover crop is clover and annual rye mixed with beneficial-insect-attracting herbs such as yarrow, dill, and

fennel, and maybe a little subsoil-loosening daikon thrown in. This lush mix need be mowed only once or twice a year, so it needs very little maintenance

while it boosts fertility. Cover crops are a good strategy for less-visited parts of a garden.

Thus, we have created three zones in this forest garden: an intensively cultivated zone 1, a well-mulched but lightly planted (for now) zone 2, and a long-

term set of soil-building cover crops beneath the young shrubs and trees of zone 3. Of course, the lucky gardener with sufficient money and access to

labor and materials might, if confident enough in the design scheme, just joyously install the whole design at once, with dense plantings and mulch in place

of the cover crops.

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Guilding the Food Forest

Let’s look at the possibilities for guilds that will connect the pieces of our food forest design. Creating guilds based on the major fruit trees is fairly

straightforward; we can plug in many elements from the apple-tree guild described in Chapter 9 or from Jerome’s list earlier in this chapter. This means

placing grass- and rodent-suppressing bulbs near the tree trunk, insect-attracting and soil-building plants in the herb and shrub layers, and additional

food-providing plants and other useful species.

Remember, though, that this guild doesn’t stand in isolation—it’s nestled among other trees and large shrubs, so the pattern of planting is tugged and

shaped by the neighboring vegetation. One lone guilded tree could be surrounded by concentric circles of its companion plants, but not in the forest

garden, with its numerous trees. Concentric rings of mulch plants and others beneath the tree’s dripline are no longer the right pattern now that other

shrubs and trees are close by. Instead, mulch plants, insect-attractors, and other guild members—depending on their need for light—should be tucked

into openings between neighboring trees and shrubs, nestled into pockets under the branches, or lined alongside paths to allow access for picking and

pruning. Plants that suppress weeds—bulbs and some of the thick mulch plants—can form, instead of a circle under one tree, a natural boundary around

a whole cluster of trees and shrubs, or can define the outline of a clearing or a sunny edge.

In this Santa Barbara, California, garden, black sage (Salvia mellifera) and California poppy (Eschscholzia californica) in the foreground represent the

drought-tolerant vegetation of the area’s native chaparral landscape, while figs, citrus, persimmons, bananas, with a backdrop of a date palm, illustrate

the wide variety of fruit trees that can be grown in this arid California climate by adding water. Contour pathways that help percolate water into the soil are

lined with locally collected stone. Design by Larry Santoyo of Earthflow Design Works. PHOTO BY LARRY SANTOYO.

In addition to fruit-tree guilds, we can also design a walnut-tree guild for this garden. Remember, though, that walnuts are allelopaths, whose mildly toxic

root secretions will stunt the growth of many other plants. This is where the use of buffer plants, described earlier, is essential. The lofty walnut, together

with its guild of hackberries, currants, and solanaceous annuals such as peppers and tomatoes, will go at the north end of the yard. Then we can insert

buffering black locusts, mulberries, and Russian olives between the walnut and any fruit trees.

The semidwarf fruit trees closer to the house can also be guilded, but we’ll underplant these trees with smaller shrubs and fewer of them because the

central trees aren’t very large and we want plenty of light and edge for the zone 1 herb, root, and ground-cover layers. Good candidates for these guilds

are nitrogen-fixing small shrubs such as buffaloberry, ceanothus, and indigo; weed-suppressing and mulch plants including comfrey, borage, and

nasturtium; and any of the wealth of smaller insectary plants.

A guild next to the house will have a different composition than one that’s located farther away. Guilds very near the house should emphasize plants for

food, medicine, and other human use, with less florae for wildlife, mulch production, and the like. Our own labor can substitute for the natural mulching,

weed-prevention, and other guild functions that we give up in exchange for having enhanced yields right outside our door. It’s no problem to add a bit of

compost and squish a few cucumber beetles right off the back porch, but I’d rather that out in zone 3, seventy-five feet away, nature did those jobs.

To install the forest garden, first eliminate most of the grass, preferably without toxic herbicides. This means either stripping the sod by hand and

composting it, power-tilling the sod at intervals a few weeks apart to kill emerging grass remnants, throwing a giant sheet-mulch party to smother the lawn,

or a combination of all three (for a review of creating and planting sheet mulch, check back to Chapter 4). This is the best time to amend and improve the

soil with lime, organic matter, and long-term fertilizers, because much of the yard will soon be covered in perennials, which makes digging-in fertilizer less

easy. As mentioned, the center of the U-shaped garden can be left in grass for a play and relaxation space.

Next, plant the trees. The back one-third of the yard (zone 3) should then be planted with the cover crops and green manures mentioned above. Zone 2

and much of zone 1 now receive a soil-building layer of deep sheet mulch, with some of the closest zone 1 beds getting a topping of rich compost to get

them ready for immediate use. Keep the mulch pulled back from the tree trunks to discourage bark-gnawing rodents.

Finally, plant shrubs and other perennial plants, bulbs and other members of the root layer, and ground covers right into the sheet mulch.

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How the Food Forest Evolves

Besides bringing food and blossom nearly all year, the many rhythms and cycles of a forest garden can fascinate and inform. In a garden full of annuals or

even in a single-layer perennial garden, most plants follow a simple yearly cycle: growth in spring, dieback in fall, and renewal—or replanting—the next

spring. But in a forest garden, the life spans of many of the occupants are measured not in one year but in decades or more. Thus, the garden’s character

will constantly change over its entire existence. Besides the regular annual cycle of all florae, the trees, shrubs, and perennials have different life spans

and growth rates, and varying responses to the seasons and to each other. Complex natural rhythms play off one another, interlocking and contrasting in

varied syncopation.

Even the seasonal cycles are more complex than in a conventional garden. In a staggered sequence of green that ripples from the garden floor to the

canopy, each layer of the garden shares light and nutrients with the others. Each spring, the lower layers of a forest garden are the first to leaf out and

drink in the early sunlight, just as in a natural woodland. Next, the shrubs put on their green covering, followed in a few weeks by the trees overhead. Many

of the plants also reach peak size at different times of the season, further sharing resources. This cooperative aspect of the forest garden is balanced,

however, with a little competition. The plants, particularly in the lower layer, do a little jostling of each other, spreading and shrinking as they compete for

light, water, and nutrients. The gardener also affects these cycles, with trowel, pruners, and harvest basket.

These rhythms and diversity are augmented by the movement of wild plants into the forest—both so-called weeds and unusual natives—and the

gardener, after observing the newcomer, can vote on whether it should stay or go. Birds, insects, snakes, lizards, and small mammals will also find safe

harbor here, further adding to the complexity and interest. Watching and learning these varied rhythms provides the best possible introduction to ecology

and the natural world. Yet we can do a little intelligent tinkering, too, favoring a useful or attractive species here, encouraging a nascent guild there.

The evolution of the forest garden over the years—not just over the seasons—offers its own benefits. Though the beauty and value of a mature

landscape can’t be denied, we’re not just idly passing time until those tiny seedlings and baby shrubs grow up. Each phase of the garden carries a new

set of rewards. When the garden is young, and the scattering of freshly planted trees is at the “twig farm” stage, the sunny spaces between seedlings can

be filled with annual and perennial vegetables and flowers. In a year or three, the shrubs and berry bushes will begin to show their true colors and fruit, and

for the next five to ten years, before the trees cast much shade, they will be at peak form. Meanwhile, the open ground for annual beds will slowly shrink,

soil fertility will grow from the thickening leaf litter, and niches for wildlife will compound by the minute.

After three or four years, the fruit trees will begin to bear, and the backbone of the garden will be apparent. By the fifth year, as trees and shrubs fill out,

the herb and ground layers will thin in the reduced light, and herbs, flowers, and vegetables can migrate to the edges and deliberate clearings. In spots,

flowering and fruiting vines will tie the upper layers together. The gardener won’t need to import much fertilizer and mulch any more, as the forest, through

the rain of leaves and the upward tug of deep-soil nutrients through roots, will be just about self-sufficient. In ten years, the trees will approach their full

height, and the canopy will begin to close. The garden will take on the serenity and majesty of maturity but will continue to fill out for another ten or twenty

years. By then, much of the original herb layer will have been renewed with new plantings, and some shrubs and small trees will have reached the end of

their lives. The substitutes will continue the evolution of this garden. Even at maturity, the garden continues to change gracefully.

The changes in the evolving forest garden are mainly these:

• From most plants being in full sun in the early years to only the upper layers, clearings, and edges receiving all-day sunshine.

• From drought-prone and vulnerable to the vicissitudes of weather and neglect to evenly moist, self-regulating, and filled with mild microclimates.

• From windy and exposed to calm and sheltered.

• From most of the flower and food production, habitat, mulch, and biomass being created by the lower layers to much of these being produced by the

shrub and tree layers.

• From needing imports of mulch and fertilizer to generating abundant fertility and soil via leaf fall and deep-rooted nutrient collection.

Earlier, I’ve sung the virtues of extending the garden upward into the third dimension. The forest garden reaches yet further, into the fourth dimension of

time. The long unfolding of this growing garden brings new opportunities and benefits into reach.

CHAPTER 11

Permaculture Gardening in the City

Much of what’s been offered in earlier chapters assumes the reader has a fair-sized yard: not much less than a quarter-acre or so. But plenty of people

live in cities, where yards are small or even nonexistent. And since I’ve returned to city life since writing the first edition of this book, I know that creating an

ecological garden in the city carries with it some special challenges. Fortunately, they are matched by a pile of opportunities even larger.

Many of the urban gardener’s dilemmas arise because city life puts a premium on space. The crush of people in cities makes every bit of ground

heavily trafficked, intensely used, and fiercely sought for a host of competing uses. What you are eyeing as a sweet garden spot, your kids will deem their

play-ground, your spouse as perfect for the comfy chaise lounge, your dog as an ideal site for digging (or worse), and the letter carrier as the quickest

path to the next yard. Right off, it’s obvious that urban yards need to be exquisitely multifunctional. In keeping with the principles of permaculture, though,

rather than viewing this as a liability, we can think of the necessity for multiple-use yards as a spur to greater creativity and a more engaging landscape.

In case any suburbanite readers are thinking “this won’t apply to me” and are ready to skip ahead to the final chapter, I’ll suggest that these space-

saving, high-intensity design approaches will apply to everyone. As houses both urban and rural have swollen in size since World War II—the average

square footage has doubled—they’ve left less room around them to garden. Yards have shrunk, too: Many recent suburbs offer lots that are no bigger than

those of urban houses, 5,000 square feet or less. Not only are these yards small, they are usually fragmented by the house, driveway, walks, and other

hardscapes into even littler spaces. Those yard splinters won’t hold many large guilds, so we’ll need to come up with other options. Doing more in the

small spaces of any metropolitan area, urban or suburban, is one focus of this chapter.

The techniques for creating life-filled home ecosystems in urban settings are similar to what we would use in any ecological landscape, but the

strategies that guide how we assemble and organize those techniques are different. To garden ecologically in metro areas, a smart strategist will play to

the city’s strengths and mitigate the weaknesses. The great strength of any city—the reason people go there—is the social capital: the synergies and

opportunities generated by creative people working together. As I’ve noted, a major weakness, especially for gardeners, is the paucity of land.

Fortunately, if we play it right, the social resources are exactly the force needed to make up for the scarcity of land.

Here’s an example. In moving to Portland, Kiel and I traded our ten rural acres for a fifty-by-one-hundred-foot lot. My first thought was, “How am I going

to fit all my favorite fruit trees into this tiny space?” The yard was almost a blank slate: mostly grass, some bark mulch hastily installed by the seller to mask

formerly weedy spots, and a dog run. The sole trees were a sapling Japanese maple and a mature European prune plum that straddled the property line.

The plums came ripe just after we arrived. One morning I was chatting with my next-door neighbor, a retired electrician and fervent gardener named

Johnny, while we harvested plums on our respective sides of the fence. Johnny asked me if I liked figs. My strong affirmative resulted in a plastic tub

brimming with ripe Mission figs wobbling my way from his side of the fence. For the next few weeks, whenever I returned the empty basin to Johny, it

come back moments later loaded with fruit.

I had also met my neighbor Theressa, who lived across the street, and because I had a surfeit of plums, I carried a bag of them over to her. She smiled

ruefully and said, “Sorry, I don’t need plums—I’ve got a tree of my own.” Theressa then told me that I had just missed peach season, when she had been

giving fruit away. But in a few weeks, she said, her Granny Smith apples would be ready, so I should load up on those. The neighbor next door to

Theressa, a computer guy named Will, overheard us and said if I needed fruit, I should come right over and help him harvest the enormous Bartlett pear

tree in his backyard. Will got my bag of plums, and I came home with twice as many pears. My neighbors’ yards had become my orchard.

I realized that I didn’t need to plant all my favorite fruit trees. I just needed to plant the ones that were missing from the neighborhood. The next spring I

bought an Asian pear, a Hachiya persimmon, and a sweet Stella cherry to fill our community’s gaps. I added an espaliered apple grafted with four

varieties, even though there were a few apples in my neighbors’ yards, since the tree could provide storage and pie apples that we lacked, as well as

acting as a hedge. The four-way apple also taught me how to maintain an espalier. With those plantings, most of the tree niches in our yard were filled.

A plum tree in front of Will Hooker’s Asheville, North Carolina, yard, planted through a street-tree improvement grant. Will says that neighborhood children

love riding their bikes under the tree to grab free fruit. PHOTO BY WILL HOOKER.

Urban yards are rarely big enough to encompass more than permacultural zone 1 and a modest zone 2, the areas of intensive use. Larger zone 2 and

zone 3 functions such as orchards and woodlots usually won’t fit. But your neighbors’ yards can be your zones 2 and 3, just as your yard can be part of

theirs. Most mature fruit trees bear too heavily for any but the most fanatical fruit lovers to consume, leaving most of us with the choice of letting fruit rot or

giving it away. As Bill Mollison says, where you have fruit, you have friends. For millennia, food has been at the center of community creation and rituals of

friendship, and sharing it is one of the most natural ways for neighbors to meet and trust each other.

The sharing goes well beyond food. Resources such as mulch and firewood, normally grown in zones 3 and 4, can come from your neighborhood and

nearby parts of the city. These places are the city-dweller’s outer zones.

I was surprised to find that mulch, fertilizer, and other organic matter are more abundant and easier to come by in cities than in rural areas. To get

manure when we lived in rural Oregon, I had to drive to a stable three miles away or to a more distant chicken farm, load the manure myself, and pay the

farmer. The supply was hit-or-miss, as neighboring farmers and gardeners competed for it. Mulch was equally hard to find because anyone generating

wood chips, leaves, or clippings would simply dump it on their back forty, where no one could use it.

But in the city, I don’t even have to leave home to get organic matter—I can have vast amounts of mulch, manure, and compost materials delivered right

to my door. That’s because organic matter in a metropolis is considered waste. It is a surplus that must be disposed of. It can’t just be piled up in a tiny

yard; there would soon be no yard left. Anyone creating more than a modest amount has to pay to haul it to the dump. So a person or business that

generates organic matter is usually pleased when someone will dispose of it for free. When my neighbors and I, hearing the clash and roar of the wood

chipper, ask the tree-trimming crew if we can have this fresh mulch, the arborists smile with relief. We’ve just saved them a hundred-dollar dumping fee,

and they will gladly drop ten cubic yards of freshly chipped wood and leaves in our driveway.

We also get free manure from a rabbit-rescue nonprofit agency in town. Zoos are another source. Restaurants and grocery stores disgorge food

scraps by the cubic yard. And don’t get me started on the volume of coffee grounds in cappuccino-crazed Portland. Spent coffee is excellent compost

fodder, particularly for a worm compost bin, which is a space-saving soil technique perfect for urban houses and even apartments.

The flow of free and cheap resources of all types in the city is vast. Websites such as Craigslist and FreeCycle can apprise us of the abundance out

there in urban zones 3 and 4. Now we begin to see that in urban zones and sectors, elements and flows are dictated more by humans and commerce

than by biology and landscape, and their cycles are at least as complex and productive as those of large yards and farms.

My own introduction to the uniqueness of city zones and sectors came at a workshop I gave at the Los Angeles Ecovillage, an ecologically based

community in a neighborhood of apartment buildings, freeways, and stores in East Los Angeles, on the edge of the downtown core. After introducing the

concepts of zones and sectors to the class, I asked them to think of some specifically urban sectors. (Remember that sectors are forces and influences

coming from off the site, such as wind and sun, that affect a landscape design.) Someone immediately described the “billboard sector.” Behind the

ecovillage yard loomed an enormous billboard that faced nearby Highway 101. It cast deep shadow over the backyard for much of the day, and at night

was ablaze in a battery of sodium-vapor lamps. Because of the billboard sector, the student explained, they had been forced to garden in the front yard.

Another student piped up, “That makes me think of another sector!” She explained that when the community moved their vegetable garden to the front

yard, they had planted tomatoes along the sidewalk. But an elementary school sat across the street, and a half-dozen times a day, hundreds of children

would boil out of their classrooms and swarm past the yard. Every tomato showing the slightest blush of red was snapped up. The ecovillagers rarely got

tomatoes. “We forgot about the schoolchild sector,” the woman announced.

In response the ecovillagers evolved a clever strategy, which was to plant tomato varieties such as Green Grape, which never turns red but sports

delicious green fruit. Black Krim, which ripens to an unappealing green-purple with black stripes, was another choice, along with White Wonder, Kentucky

Yellow, and others that won’t display the iconic tomato redness. The kids remained clueless, and the tomato harvest was safe. In this way, the schoolchild

sector was deflected, just as any sector’s energy can be blocked by good design.

A suburban front yard in southwest Houston, Texas, designed by Kevin Topek of Permaculture Design, LLC. Plantings between sidewalk and street to

create habitat and privacy. These native and drought-adapted species need little maintenance and a minimum of water. Species in the foreground include

Mexican Turk’s cap, almond verbena, bulbine, rudbeckia, ruby grass, cassia, and thryallis. PHOTO BY KEVIN TOPEK.

Other sectors that the Los Angeles class identified were:

• The bad-smell sector, coming from the fast-food joint around the corner.

• The noise sector, primarily the nearby freeway, but also the schoolyard and street.

• The workshop sector, because holding events at the ecovillage brought many people to their site, with concomitant activity, excitement, and

disruptions.

• The crime sector, which was the alley behind their buildings, an unsafe place at night. A student pointed out that the crime sector at intervals became .

. .

• The police sector because two beat cops patrolled the alley periodically after dark.

Zones and sectors in an urban context. Here, the zones, instead of being defined by their distance from your doorstep, represent places reachable by

foot, bicycle, public transit, car, and plane. Sectors are the influences and forces that affect a city-dweller, such as family, community, multinational

corporations, and local businesses. REDRAWN WITH PERMISSION FROM “ADAPTING ZONES AND SECTORS FOR THE CITY” BY BART

ANDERSON, WWW.ENERGYBULLETIN.NET/12052.HTML

Viewing zones and sectors through an urban filter lets us see the influences on our landscapes, as well as our lives, in a new perspective. When Bart

Anderson, a former reporter and current coeditor of the website EnergyBulletin.net, took a permaculture design course, he was inspired to expand the

use of zones and sectors. Many of the traditional elements, such as fire sectors or zones for timber crops, didn’t apply at all to his urban life. But he

realized that the concept was a powerful tool for viewing his home and habits in the context of an entire city and social network.

Bart saw that when looking at a city person’s movements as a whole, zone 1 could define places accessible by walking. Zone 2 encompassed

destinations reached by bicycle; zone 3, by public transit; zone 4, by car; and zone 5, by plane. Sectors, in turn, became the social and economic

influences on an urbanite’s life. In Bart’s plan, sectors could be divided into family and friends, personal activities, associations such as churches and

nonprofits, community and local government, local businesses, and non-local corporations. A zone, such as the area reachable by public transit, may

intersect with a local business sector at a farmers’ market, with the community at a recycling center, and in the friend sector at a buddy’s garden. The

figure shown above shows how Bart defined the zones and sectors for his own metropolitan life.

This way of viewing zones and sectors makes explicit many of the differences between urban and nonurban landscapes. In rural life, many activities,

such as socializing, meal preparation, and relaxation, most often occur on a home owner’s property. Rural people are more likely to have orchards, large

production gardens, and firewood trees and may even homeschool their children and do maintenance such as car repair at home. In the city, much of this

occurs away from home, and so urbanites do more activities in “zones” that are not owned by them and are commonly businesses or public places

instead of private homes. Thus for urbanites, their “site” frequently expands beyond the boundaries of their property line. Just as I discovered my urban

orchard in Theressa, Johnny, and Will’s yards, I find my office is sometimes in a coffee shop, and my firewood comes from city parks. Even food

harvesting can occur away from home, as many fruit trees are on public property or are otherwise open to our use. Tools like the Internet have made these

resources even more available. One website, urbanedibles.com, is a user-created database of harvestable fruit trees and other edible species

throughout my city of Portland, with addresses and hints for making best use of the plants.

For the idea of zone and sector to be a useful tool for design and efficient resource use, in urban spaces it must encompass a different set of places

and forces than in wilder lands. The roles of large natural elements such as fire and wind lessen, while the importance of human influences such as traffic,

billboards, neighbors, authorities, and businesses enlarges.

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