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an mbox-format one:

import mailbox

# 'factory=None' uses email.Message.Message as the class representing

# individual messages.

src = mailbox.Maildir('maildir', factory=None)

dest = mailbox.mbox('/tmp/mbox')

for msg in src:

dest.add(msg)

(Contributed by Gregory K. Johnson. Funding was provided by Google’s 2005

Summer of Code.)

New module: the

msilib

module allows creating Microsoft Installer

.msi

files and

CAB files. Some support for reading the

.msi

database is also included. (Contributed

by Martin von Löwis.)

The

nis

module now supports accessing domains other than the system default

domain by supplying a domain argument to the

nis.match()

and

nis.maps()

functions. (Contributed by Ben Bell.)

The

operator

module’s

itemgetter()

and

attrgetter()

functions now support

multiple fields. A call such as

operator.attrgetter('a', 'b')

will return a function

that retrieves the

and

attributes. Combining this new feature with the

sort()

method’s

key

parameter lets you easily sort lists using multiple fields. (Contributed by

Raymond Hettinger.)

The

optparse

module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the Optik library. The

OptionParser

class gained an

epilog

attribute, a string that will be printed after the

help message, and a

destroy()

method to break reference cycles created by the

object. (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

The

module underwent several changes. The

stat_float_times

variable now

defaults to true, meaning that

os.stat()

will now return time values as floats. (This

doesn’t necessarily mean that

os.stat()

will return times that are precise to

fractions of a second; not all systems support such precision.)

Constants named

os.SEEK_SET

os.SEEK_CUR

, and

os.SEEK_END

have been added;

these are the parameters to the

os.lseek()

function. Two new constants for locking

are

os.O_SHLOCK

and

os.O_EXLOCK

Two new functions,

wait3()

and

wait4()

, were added. They’re similar the

waitpid()

function which waits for a child process to exit and returns a tuple of the process ID

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and its exit status, but

wait3()

and

wait4()

return additional information.

wait3()

doesn’t take a process ID as input, so it waits for any child process to exit and

returns a 3-tuple of process-id, exit-status, resource-usage as returned from the

resource.getrusage()

function.

wait4(pid)()

does take a process ID. (Contributed

by Chad J. Schroeder.)

On FreeBSD, the

os.stat()

function now returns times with nanosecond resolution,

and the returned object now has

st_gen

and

st_birthtime

. The

st_flags

attribute is

also available, if the platform supports it. (Contributed by Antti Louko and Diego

Pettenò.)

The Python debugger provided by the

pdb

module can now store lists of commands

to execute when a breakpoint is reached and execution stops. Once breakpoint #1

has been created, enter

commands 1

and enter a series of commands to be

executed, finishing the list with

end

. The command list can include commands that

resume execution, such as

continue

. (Contributed by Grégoire Dooms.)

The

pickle

and

cPickle

modules no longer accept a return value of

None

from the

__reduce__()

method; the method must return a tuple of arguments instead. The

ability to return

None

was deprecated in Python 2.4, so this completes the removal of

the feature.

The

pkgutil

module, containing various utility functions for finding packages, was

enhanced to support PEP 302’s import hooks and now also works for packages

stored in ZIP-format archives. (Contributed by Phillip J. Eby.)

The pybench benchmark suite by Marc-André Lemburg is now included in the

Tools/pybench

directory. The pybench suite is an improvement on the commonly

used

pystone.py

program because pybench provides a more detailed measurement

of the interpreter’s speed. It times particular operations such as function calls, tuple

slicing, method lookups, and numeric operations, instead of performing many

different operations and reducing the result to a single number as

pystone.py

does.

The

pyexpat

module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser. (Contributed by Trent

Mick.)

The

Queue

class provided by the

Queue

module gained two new methods.

join()

blocks until all items in the queue have been retrieved and all processing work on the

items have been completed. Worker threads call the other new method,

task_done()

, to signal that processing for an item has been completed. (Contributed

by Raymond Hettinger.)

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The old

regex

and

regsub

modules, which have been deprecated ever since Python

2.0, have finally been deleted. Other deleted modules:

statcache

tzparse

whrandom

Also deleted: the

lib-old

directory, which includes ancient modules such as

dircmp

and

, was removed.

lib-old

wasn’t on the default

sys.path

, so unless your

programs explicitly added the directory to

sys.path

, this removal shouldn’t affect

your code.

The

rlcompleter

module is no longer dependent on importing the

readline

module

and therefore now works on non-Unix platforms. (Patch from Robert Kiendl.)

The

SimpleXMLRPCServer

and

DocXMLRPCServer

classes now have a

rpc_paths

attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set of URL paths; the

default is to allow only

'/'

and

'/RPC2'

. Setting

rpc_paths

None

or an empty tuple

disables this path checking.

The

socket

module now supports

AF_NETLINK

sockets on Linux, thanks to a patch

from Philippe Biondi. Netlink sockets are a Linux-specific mechanism for

communications between a user-space process and kernel code; an introductory

article about them is at http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356. In Python code,

netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers,

(pid, group_mask)

Two

new

methods

socket

objects,

recv_into(buffer)()

and

recvfrom_into(buffer)()

, store the received data in an object that supports the

buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a string. This means you can put the

data directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.

Socket objects also gained

getfamily()

gettype()

, and

getproto()

accessor

methods to retrieve the family, type, and protocol values for the socket.

New module: the

spwd

module provides functions for accessing the shadow

password database on systems that support shadow passwords.

The

struct

is now faster because it compiles format strings into

Struct

objects with

pack()

and

unpack()

methods. This is similar to how the

module lets you create

compiled regular expression objects. You can still use the module-level

pack()

and

unpack()

functions; they’ll create

Struct

objects and cache them. Or you can use

Struct

instances directly:

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s = struct.Struct('ih3s')

data = s.pack(1972, 187, 'abc')

year, number, name = s.unpack(data)

You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects directly using the

pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)()

and

unpack_from(buffer, offset)()

methods. This lets you store data directly into an array or a memory- mapped file.

(

Struct

objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed sprint.

Support for buffer objects was added by Martin Blais, also at the NeedForSpeed

sprint.)

The Python developers switched from CVS to Subversion during the 2.5

development process. Information about the exact build version is available as the

sys.subversion

variable, a 3-tuple of

(interpreter-name, branch-name, revision-

range)

. For example, at the time of writing my copy of 2.5 was reporting

('CPython', 'trunk', '45313:45315')

This information is also available to C extensions via the

Py_GetBuildInfo()

function

that returns a string of build information like this:

"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13

2006, 07:42:19"

. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

Another new function,

sys._current_frames()

, returns the current stack frames for

all running threads as a dictionary mapping thread identifiers to the topmost stack

frame currently active in that thread at the time the function is called. (Contributed by

Tim Peters.)

The

TarFile

class in the

tarfile

module now has an

extractall()

method that

extracts all members from the archive into the current working directory. It’s also

possible to set a different directory as the extraction target, and to unpack only a

subset of the archive’s members.

The compression used for a tarfile opened in stream mode can now be autodetected

using the mode

'r|*'

. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

The

threading

module now lets you set the stack size used when new threads are

created. The

stack_size([*size*])()

function returns the currently configured stack

size, and supplying the optional size parameter sets a new value. Not all platforms

support changing the stack size, but Windows, POSIX threading, and OS/2 all do.

(Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

The

unicodedata

module has been updated to use version 4.1.0 of the Unicode

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character database. Version 3.2.0 is required by some specifications, so it’s still

available as

unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0

New module: the

uuid

module generates universally unique identifiers (UUIDs)

according to RFC 4122. The RFC defines several different UUID versions that are

generated from a starting string, from system properties, or purely randomly. This

module contains a

UUID

class and functions named

uuid1()

uuid3()

uuid4()

, and

uuid5()

to generate different versions of UUID. (Version 2 UUIDs are not specified

in RFC 4122 and are not supported by this module.)

>>> import uuid

>>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time

>>> uuid.uuid1()

UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

>>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name

>>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')

UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

>>> # make a random UUID

>>> uuid.uuid4()

UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

>>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name

>>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')

UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

(Contributed by Ka-Ping Yee.)

The

weakref

module’s

WeakKeyDictionary

and

WeakValueDictionary

types gained

new methods for iterating over the weak references contained in the dictionary.

iterkeyrefs()

and

keyrefs()

methods were added to

WeakKeyDictionary

, and

itervaluerefs()

and

valuerefs()

were added to

WeakValueDictionary

(Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

The

webbrowser

module received a number of enhancements. It’s now usable as a

script with

python -m webbrowser

, taking a URL as the argument; there are a

number of switches to control the behaviour (-n for a new browser window, -t for a

new tab). New module-level functions,

open_new()

and

open_new_tab()

, were added

to support this. The module’s

open()

function supports an additional feature, an

autoraise parameter that signals whether to raise the open window when possible. A

number of additional browsers were added to the supported list such as Firefox,

Opera, Konqueror, and elinks. (Contributed by Oleg Broytmann and Georg Brandl.)

The

xmlrpclib

module now supports returning

datetime

objects for the XML-RPC

date type. Supply

use_datetime=True

to the

loads()

function or the

Unmarshaller

class to enable this feature. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

The

zipfile

module now supports the ZIP64 version of the format, meaning that a

.zip archive can now be larger than 4 GiB and can contain individual files larger than

4 GiB. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)

The

zlib

module’s

Compress

and

Decompress

objects now support a

copy()

method

that makes a copy of the object’s internal state and returns a new

Compress

Decompress

object. (Contributed by Chris AtLee.)

The ctypes package

The

ctypes

package, written by Thomas Heller, has been added to the standard library.

ctypes

lets you call arbitrary functions in shared libraries or DLLs. Long-time users may

remember the

module, which provides functions for loading shared libraries and calling

functions in them. The

ctypes

package is much fancier.

To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the

CDLL

class and

provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL. Once that’s done, you can call

arbitrary functions by accessing them as attributes of the

CDLL

object.

import ctypes

libc = ctypes.CDLL('libc.so.6')

result = libc.printf("Line of output\n")

Type constructors for the various C types are provided:

c_int()

c_float()

c_double()

c_char_p()

(equivalent to

char *

), and so forth. Unlike Python’s types, the C versions

are all mutable; you can assign to their

value

attribute to change the wrapped value.

Python integers and strings will be automatically converted to the corresponding C types,

but for other types you must call the correct type constructor. (And I mean must; getting

it wrong will often result in the interpreter crashing with a segmentation fault.)

You shouldn’t use

c_char_p()

with a Python string when the C function will be modifying

the memory area, because Python strings are supposed to be immutable; breaking this

rule will cause puzzling bugs. When you need a modifiable memory area, use

create_string_buffer()

s = "this is a string"

buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(s)

libc.strfry(buf)

C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the

restype

attribute of the

function object to change this:

>>> libc.atof('2.71828')

-1783957616

>>> libc.atof.restype = ctypes.c_double

>>> libc.atof('2.71828')

2.71828

ctypes

also provides a wrapper for Python’s C API as the

ctypes.pythonapi

object. This

object does not release the global interpreter lock before calling a function, because the

lock must be held when calling into the interpreter’s code. There’s a

py_object()

type

constructor that will create a

PyObject *

pointer. A simple usage:

import ctypes

d = {}

ctypes.pythonapi.PyObject_SetItem(ctypes.py_object(d),

ctypes.py_object("abc"), ctypes.py_object(1))

# d is now {'abc', 1}.

Don’t forget to use

py_object()

; if it’s omitted you end up with a segmentation fault.

ctypes

has been around for a while, but people still write and distribution hand-coded

extension modules because you can’t rely on

ctypes

being present. Perhaps developers

will begin to write Python wrappers atop a library accessed through

ctypes

instead of

extension modules, now that

ctypes

is included with core Python.

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